WILDLIFE

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The Ojai Valley is home to over 3,500 species of wildlife. Below is a brief selection of these species. For a comprehensive list of all species in the area, along with additional information and detailed observations, please visit a database such as iNaturalist.

Ursus americanus
Physical Characteristics
The coat of a black bear is shaggy and usually black but it can also be dark brown, cinnamon, yellow-brown, and grey-blue depending on location. Eyes are brown (blue at birth). Skin is light gray. The black bear is approximately 4 to 7 feet from nose to tail, and 2 to 3 feet high at the withers. It has small eyes, rounded ears, a long brown snout, a large body, and a short tail. Males weigh an average of 150-300 lbs. Black bears have 5 toes, each with a well-developed claw, on both front and hind feet, and teeth adapted for feeding on both plant and animal matter.
Black bears have strong powerful legs with large paws. They are expert tree climbers and have an excellent sense of smell.
Habitat
Black bears have lost over 60% of their historical range. They historically occupied nearly all of the forested regions of North America, but in the U.S. They are now restricted to relatively undisturbed forested regions. Black bears are adaptable and live in a variety of habitat types. They are mainly found in forested areas with thick ground cover and an abundance of fruits, nuts and vegetation. During the winter they hibernate in dens that they have built. They will build their dens in tree cavities, under rocks or logs, in banks or caves, culverts and in shallow depressions.
Diet
California Black Bears are omnivores. 95% of their diet is plant based. Black bears mainly feed on vegetation including herbs, grasses, roots, buds, shoots, honey, nuts, fruit, berries and seeds. Occasionally they will also eat fish, small mammals, insects & insect larvae, carrion and garbage. Bears commonly consume ants and other insects in summer, but prefer nut crops, especially acorns, and manzanita berries in the fall.
Behavior
Most bears become active a half-hour before sunrise, take a nap or two during the day, and bed down for the night an hour or two after sunset. Some bears are active mainly at night to avoid people or other bears.
Not all of the black bears in our region are thought to go into hibernation in the strictest sense of the term, but since no studies have been done on local populations, it is hard to know for certain. Bears inhabiting chaparral at lower elevations are not as affected by cold temperatures and lack of food as those that live in the coniferous forests. However, it appears that a majority do undergo a period of prolonged inactivity, and those that give birth will usually den up during winter months.
Because of their very short tails and long hair, bears cannot use tail or torso to send signals through body language as some other creatures do. This may explain why head, neck and mouth are used so much to communicate. Walking with head held below the shoulders is likely to result in some type of aggressive behavior. A whole range of facial and mouth expressions are used to intimidate one another including snarling, opening and closing the mouth rapidly while salivating, bearing teeth and making chomping (clacking) noises often indicate an agitated bear. A bear will sometimes bluff-charge an intruder by running full speed at the intruder and stopping just short. This is usually in a strong signal for the intruder to leave the area.
Black bears can sprint up to 35 mph and they are strong swimmers.
Breeding
Black bears are solitary animals except for mothers with cubs, during the breeding season or when they come together at feeding sites.
Black bears mate during the months of June and July. Cubs are born in January or February after a gestation period of 215 days. There are usually 2-3 cubs per litter, but litter sizes can be as large as 5. The cubs are born in a den while the mother is hibernating. At birth the cubs weigh between 200 and 450g (7 – 16oz). They are born blind, with no fur and they will remain with their mother in the den until spring. The cubs are weaned at 6 - 8 months old. They usually stay with their mother for about 2 years so they can learn how to hunt and survive. They reach sexual maturity when they are between 2 and 5 years old.
Black bears can live to 30 years in the wild. They usually live for only about 10 years, due to encounters with humans.
Predators
Other than humans, black bears have few predators – bobcats, cougars, and coyotes occasionally attack cubs.
References
naturemappingfoundation.org/natmap/ca/facts/mammals/american_black_bear.html
www.tahoewildbears.org/black_bear_facts.htm
www.dfg.ca.gov/wildlife/hunting/bear/biology.html
Photo by: Mykola Swarnyk Wikimedia Commons

Lynx rufus
Physical Characteristics
The bobcat resembles other species of the Lynx genus, but is on average the smallest. Its coat is variable, though generally tan to grayish-brown, with black streaks on the body and dark bars on the forelegs and tail. Its spotted patterning acts as camouflage. The ears are black-tipped and pointed, with short, black tufts. There is generally an off-white color on the lips, chin, and under parts. Kittens are born well-furred and already have their spots.
The face appears wide due to ruffs of extended hair beneath the ears. Bobcat’s eyes are yellow with black pupils. The nose of the bobcat is pinkish-red, and it has a base color of gray or yellowish or brownish-red on its face, sides, and back. The pupils are round, black circles and will widen during nocturnal (active at night) activity to maximize light reception. The cat has sharp hearing and vision, and a good sense of smell. It is an excellent climber, and will swim when it needs to, but will normally avoid water.
The adult bobcat is 18.7 to 49 in (47.5 to 125 cm) long from head to the base of the tail, averaging 32.6 in (82.7 cm); the stubby tail adds 3.5 to 7.9 in (9 to 20 cm) and its “bobbed” appearance gives the species its name. An adult stands about 12 to 24 in (30 to 60 cm) at the shoulders. Adult males can range in weight from 14 to 40 lb (6.4 to 18.3 kg), with an average of 21 lb (9.6 kg); females at 8.8 to 34 lb (4 to 15.3 kg), with an average of 15 lb (6.8 kg). The bobcat is muscular, and its hind legs are longer than its front legs, giving it a bobbing gait. At birth, it weighs 0.6 to 0.75 lb (270 to 340 g) and is about 10 in (25 cm) in length. By its first birthday, it will reach about 10 lb (4.5 kg).
Habitat
The bobcat is an adaptable animal. It prefers woodlands – deciduous, coniferous, or mixed – but unlike the other Lynx species, it does not depend exclusively on the deep forest. It ranges from the humid swamps of Florida to desert lands of Texas or rugged mountain areas. It will make its home near agricultural areas, if rocky ledges, swamps or forested tracts are present. The population of the bobcat depends primarily on the population of its prey; other principal factors in the selection of habitat type include protection from severe weather, availability of resting and den sites, dense cover for hunting and escape, and freedom from disturbance.
The bobcat’s range does not seem to be limited by human populations, as long as it can find a suitable habitat; only large, intensively cultivated tracts are unsuitable for the species. The animal may appear in back yards in “urban edge” environments, where human development intersects with natural habitats. If chased by a dog, it will usually climb up a tree.
Diet
The bobcat is able to go for long periods without food, but will eat heavily when prey is abundant. During lean periods, it will often prey on larger animals it can kill and return to feed on later. The bobcat hunts by stalking its prey and then ambushing it with a short chase or pounce. Its preference is for mammals about 1.5 to 12.5 lb (0.68 to 5.7 kg).
The bobcat hunts animals of different sizes, and will adjust its hunting techniques accordingly. With small animals, such as rodents, squirrels, birds, fish and insects, it will hunt areas known to be abundant in prey, and will lie, couch, or stand and wait for victims to wander close. It will then pounce, grabbing its prey with its sharp, retractable claws. For slightly larger animals, such as rabbits and hares, it will stalk from cover and wait until they come within 20 to 35 ft (6.1 to 11 m) before rushing in to attack. Less commonly, it will feed on larger animals, such as young ungulates (hoofed mammals) and other carnivores such as foxes, minks, skunks, small dogs and domesticated cats.
It has been known to kill deer, especially in winter when smaller prey is scarce, or when deer populations become more abundant. It stalks the deer, often when the deer is lying down, then rushes in and grabs it by the neck before biting the throat, base of the skull, or chest. On the rare occasions a bobcat kills a deer, it eats its fill and then buries the carcass under leaves, often returning to it several times to feed.
Behavior
The bobcat is crepuscular (appearing or active in twilight). It keeps on the move from 3 hours before sunset until midnight, and then again from before dawn until 3 hours after sunrise. Each night it will move from 2 to 7 mi (3.2 to 11 km) along its habitual route. This behavior may vary seasonally, as bobcats become more diurnal during fall and winter in response to the activity of their prey, which are more active during the day in colder months.
Bobcat activities are confined to well-defined territories, which vary in size depending on gender and the distribution of prey. The home range is marked with feces, urine scent, and by clawing prominent trees in the area. In its territory, the bobcat will have numerous places of shelter, usually a main den, and several auxiliary shelters on the outer extent of its range, such as hollow logs, brush piles, thickets, or under rock ledges. Its den smells strongly of the bobcat.
The sizes of bobcat’s home ranges vary significantly; In Southern California, home range sizes for males average about 4.5 square miles (7.1 square kilometers), while it was about 2.2 square miles (3.5 square kilometers) for females.
Like most felines, the bobcat is largely solitary, but ranges will often overlap. Unusual for cats, males are more tolerant of overlap, while females rarely wander into other’s ranges. Given their smaller range sizes, two or more females may reside within a male’s home range. When multiple male territories overlap, a dominance hierarchy is often established, resulting in the exclusion of some transients from favored areas.
Breeding
Bobcats typically live to 6 or 8 years of age, with a few reaching beyond 10. The longest they have been known to live is 16 years in the wild and 32 years in captivity.
They generally begin breeding by their second summer, though females may start as early as their first year. Sperm production begins each year by September or October, and the male will be fertile into the summer. A dominant male will travel with a female and mate with her several times, generally from winter until early spring; this varies by location. In Southern California, bobcat mating season is in the winter, generally starting around December, lasting through January and potentially into February. The pair may undertake a number of different behaviors, including bumping, chasing, and ambushing. Other males may be in attendance, but remain uninvolved. Once the male recognizes the female is receptive, he grasps her in the typical felid neck grip and mates with her. The female may later go on to mate with other males, and males will generally mate with several females. During courtship, the otherwise silent bobcat may let out loud screams, hisses, or other sounds.
The female raises the young alone. 1 to 6, but usually 2 to 4, kittens are born in April or May, after roughly 60 to 70 days of gestation. Sometimes a second litter is born as late as September. The female generally gives birth in an enclosed space, usually a small cave or hollow log. The young open their eyes by the 9th or 10th day. They start exploring their surroundings at 4 weeks and are weaned at about 2 months. Within 3 to 5 months, they begin to travel with their mother. They will be hunting by themselves by fall of their first year, and usually disperse shortly thereafter.
Predators and Survival Techniques
The adult bobcat has few predators other than man, although it may be killed in interspecific conflict. Cougars and coyotes have killed adult bobcats and kittens. Kittens may be taken by several predators, including owls, eagles, and foxes, as well as other adult bobcats.
Diseases, accidents, hunters, automobiles, and starvation are the other leading causes of death. Juveniles show high mortality shortly after leaving their mothers, while still perfecting their hunting techniques.
References
Urban Carnivores – Bobcats; www.urbancarnivores.com/bobcats
Bobcat; from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Photo by Linda Tanner, Wikimedia Commons

Puma concolor
Learn about what to do if you encounter a mountain lion »
Physical Characteristics
Cougars are slender and agile members of the cat family. They are the 4th largest cat; adults stand about 24 to 35 in (60 to 90 cm) tall at the shoulders. Adult males are around 7.9 ft (2.4 m) long nose to tail and females average 6.7 ft (2.05 m), with overall ranges between 4.0 to 9.0 ft (1.5 to 2.75 m) nose to tail suggested for the species in general. Of this length, 25 to 37 in (63 to 95 cm) is comprised by the tail. Males typically weigh 115 to 220 lb (53 to 100 kg), averaging 137 lb (62 kg). Females typically weigh between 64 and 141 lb (29 and 64 kg), averaging 93 lb (42 kg).
The head of the cat is round and the ears are erect. Its powerful forequarters, neck, and jaw serve to grasp and hold large prey. It has 5 retractable claws on its forepaws ( one a dewclaw) and four on its hind paws. The larger front feet and claws are adaptations to clutching prey.
Despite its size, it is not typically classified among the “big cats”, as it cannot roar, lacking the specialized larynx and hyoid apparatus of Panthera. Compared to “big cats”, cougars are often silent with minimal communication through vocalizations outside of the mother-offspring relationship. Cougars sometimes voice low-pitched hisses, growls, and purrs, as well as chirps and whistles, many of which are comparable to those of domestic cats. They are well known for their screams, as referenced in these screams are often misinterpreted to be calls of other animals.
Cougar coloring is plain (hence the Latin concolor) but can vary greatly between individuals and even between siblings. The coat is typically tawny, but ranges to silvery-grey or reddish, with lighter patches on the underbody, including the jaws, chin, and throat. Infants are spotted and born with blue eyes and rings on their tails; juveniles are pale, and dark spots remain on their flanks.
Cougars have large paws and proportionally the largest hind legs in the cat family. This physique allows it great leaping and short-sprint ability. The cougar is able to leap as high as 18 ft (5.5 m) in one bound, and as far as 40 to 45 ft horizontally.The cougar's top running speed ranges between 40 to 50 mph (64 to 80 km/h), but is best adapted for short, powerful sprints rather than long chases. It is adept at climbing, which allows it to evade canine competitors. Although it is not strongly associated with water, it can swim.
Habitat
The cougar can adapt to virtually every habitat type; it is found in all forest types, as well as in lowland and mountainous deserts. The cougar prefers regions with dense underbrush, but can live with little vegetation in open areas. Its preferred habitats include precipitous canyons, escarpments, rim rocks, and dense brush.
Diet
A successful generalist predator, the cougar will eat any animal it can catch, from insects to large ungulates (“hoofed animal”). Like all cats, it is an obligate carnivore, meaning it needs to feed exclusively on meat to survive. In this area cougars eat mule deer, raccoons, rabbits, squirrels and mice.
Though capable of sprinting, the cougar is typically an ambush predator. It stalks through brush and trees, across ledges, or other covered spots, before delivering a powerful leap onto the back of its prey and a suffocating neck bite. The cougar is capable of breaking the neck of some of its smaller prey with a strong bite and momentum bearing the animal to the ground.
Kills are generally estimated at around one large ungulate every two weeks. The period shrinks for females raising young, and may be as short as one kill every three days when cubs are nearly mature at around 15 months. The cat drags a kill to a preferred spot, covers it with brush, and returns to feed over a period of days. It is generally reported that the cougar is not a scavenger, and will rarely consume prey it has not killed; but deer carcasses left exposed for study were scavenged by cougars in California, suggesting more opportunistic behavior.
Behavior
Like almost all cats, the cougar is a solitary animal. Only mothers and kittens live in groups, with adults meeting only to mate. It is secretive and crepuscular, being most active around dawn and dusk.
Home range sizes and overall cougar abundance depend on terrain, vegetation, and prey abundance. One female adjacent to the San Andres Mountains, for instance, was found with a large range of 83 sq mi (215 km), necessitated by poor prey abundance. Research has shown cougar abundances from 0.5 animals to as much as 7 (in one study in South America) per 38 sq mi (100 km).
Because males disperse farther than females and compete more directly for mates and territory, they are most likely to be involved in conflict. Where a subadult fails to leave his maternal range, for example, he may be killed by his father. When males encounter each other, they hiss, spit, and may engage in violent conflict if neither backs down. Hunting or relocation of the cougar may increase aggressive encounters by disrupting territories and bringing young, transient animals into conflict with established individuals.
Breeding
Females reach sexual maturity between one-and-a-half to three years of age. They typically average one litter every two to three years throughout their reproductive lives, though the period can be as short as one year. Females are in estrus for about 8 days of a 23-day cycle; the gestation period is approximately 91 days. Females are sometimes reported as monogamous, but this is uncertain and polygyny may be more common. Copulation is brief but frequent. Chronic stress can result in low reproductive rates when in captivity in addition to in the field.
Only females are involved in parenting. Female cougars are fiercely protective of their cubs, and have been seen to successfully fight off animals as large as American black bears in their defense. Litter size is between one and six cubs; typically two or three. Caves and other alcoves that offer protection are used as litter dens. Born blind, cubs are completely dependent on their mother at first, and begin to be weaned at around three months of age. As they grow, they begin to go out on forays with their mother, first visiting kill sites, and after six months beginning to hunt small prey on their own. Kitten survival rates are just over one per litter. When cougars are born, they have spots, but they lose them as they grow, and by the age of 2 1/2 years, they will completely be gone.
Young adults leave their mother to attempt to establish their own territory at around two years of age and sometimes earlier; males tend to leave sooner. One study has shown high mortality amongst cougars that travel farthest from the maternal range, often due to conflicts with other cougars.
Life expectancy in the wild is reported at 8 to 13 years, and probably averages 8 to 10.
Predators
Aside from humans, no species preys upon mature cougars in the wild, although conflicts with other predators or scavengers occur.
What to do if you Meet a Lion
• When you walk or hike in mountain lion country; go in groups and make plenty of noise to reduce your chances of surprising a lion. A sturdy walking stick is a good idea; it can be used to ward off a lion. Make sure children remain close to you and in your sight at all times.
• Do not approach a lion, especially one that is feeding or with kittens. Most lions avoid a confrontation. Give them a way to escape.
• Stay calm when you come upon a lion. Talk calmly yet firmly to it. Move slowly.
• Stop. Back away slowly only if you can do so safely. Running may stimulate a lion's instinct to chase and attack. Face the lion and stand upright.
• Do All You Can To Appear Larger. Raise your arms. Open your jacket if you're wearing one. If you have small children with you, protect them by picking them up so they won't panic and run.
• If the lion behaves aggressively, throw stones, branches or whatever you can get your hands on without crouching down or turning your back. Wave your arms slowly and speak firmly. What you want to do is convince the lion you are not prey and that you may in fact be a danger to the lion.
• Fight back if a lion attacks you. Lions have been driven away by prey that fights back. People have fought back with rocks, sticks, or jackets, and their bare-hands successfully. Remain standing or try to get back up!
References
https://ovlc.org/mountain-lions
Cougar, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://apps.wildlife.ca.gov/wir/incident/create.
If people have a concern about a mountain lion, they are advised to call the California Fish and Wildlife South Coast Region office at 858-467-4201 or 858-467-4257.
They are also advised to fill out an incident form online at: https://apps.wildlife.ca.gov/wir/incident/create.
Photo from Adobe Stock

Canis latrans
In Latin, Canis latrans means “barking dog.”
Physical Characteristics
The color of the coyote's pelt varies from grayish-brown to yellowish-gray on the upper parts, while the throat and belly tend to have a buff or white color. The forelegs, sides of the head, muzzle and paws are reddish-brown. The back has tawny-colored underfur and long, black-tipped guard hairs that form a black dorsal stripe and a dark cross on the shoulder area. The black-tipped tail has a scent gland on its dorsal base. Coyotes shed once a year, beginning in May with light hair loss, ending in July after heavy shedding. The triangular ears are proportionately large in relation to the head, while the feet are relatively small in relation to the rest of the body. Certain experts have noted the shape of a domestic dog's brain case is closer to the coyote's in shape than that of a wolf's. Mountain-dwelling coyotes tend to be dark-furred, while desert coyotes tend to be more light brown in color.
Coyotes typically grow to 30-34 in (76-86 cm) in length, not counting a tail of 12-16 in (30-41 cm), stand about 23-26 in (58-66 cm) at the shoulder and weigh from 15-46 lb (6.8-21 kg).
The upper frequency limit of hearing for coyotes is 80 kHz, compared to the 60 kHz of domestic dogs.
The fastest of all native North American canids, coyotes can run up to 40 miles per hour for short stretches, cruise for longer periods at 25 to 30 mph, and cover 14 feet in one leap.
One way to tell the coyote apart from wolves and dogs is to watch its tail when it runs. The coyote runs with its tail down. Dogs run with their tails up, and wolves run with their tails straight out.
Habitat
Coyotes can be found in a variety of habitats including fields, plains and bushy areas.
Diet
Hungry coyotes eat almost anything that won't kill them, though they specialize in certain foods seasonally. In spring, rabbits, voles, mice and fawns dominate their diets. Coyotes also hunt ground squirrels in the spring, as well as skunks, opossums, snakes and other animals. When summer comes, they add large quantities of insects, including crickets and grasshoppers to their diet. They also eat wild and cultivated fruits. In fall, their diets expand to include cultivated nuts, such as almonds and walnuts, and in winter they eat toyon berries and deer.
After locating a small mammal by vision or hearing, a coyote closes on it quickly and, at the last minute, makes a graceful, leg-tucked leap, pinning the animal under its paws when it lands. When hunting larger prey like deer, coyotes hunt in packs. One or more coyote chases the deer while the others wait; then the next group will pick up the chase. Working in teams like this the coyote can tire the deer out, making it easier to kill.
The coyote-badger partnership – These two species are such good hunting partners that they even travel together on occasion. With its keen senses, a coyote will find and chase a squirrel, forcing it to escape down a burrow. The coyote's badger cohort, if it is at the right spot at the right time, will dig down quickly to snag the squirrel. The coyote gets nothing out of that deal but scores at other times by waiting near a ground squirrel colony while the badger digs. If a squirrel dashes out, the coyote will dab it. When hunting in tandem with badgers, coyotes probably catch 30% more ground squirrels than when they hunt alone.
Coyotes also receive help from golden eagles and ravens, who guide them to potential prey or to fresh carcasses that they want coyotes to tear open for them.
The average distance covered in a night's hunting is 2.5 mi (4.0 km).
Behavior
Though coyotes have been observed to travel in large groups, they primarily hunt in pairs. Typically packs consist of 6 closely related adults, yearlings and young. Coyote packs are generally smaller than wolf packs, and associations between individuals are less stable, thus making their social behavior more in line with that of the dingo. In theory, this is due to an earlier expression of aggression, and the fact that coyotes reach their full growth in their first year, unlike wolves, which reach it in their second. Common names of coyote groups are a band, a pack, or a rout. Coyotes are primarily nocturnal, but can often be seen during daylight hours. They were once essentially diurnal, but have adapted to more nocturnal behavior with pressure from humans.
Coyotes like to place their dens on slopes, steep banks or rock ledges, well oriented for maximum solar exposure. They sometimes enlarge abandoned badger dens or ground squirrel complexes, but they also dig their own homes from scratch. Coyote lairs often have several entrances, hidden in brushy thickets, which lead to a maze of interconnecting tunnels up to 25 feet long. They use well-situated dens year after year, generation after generation, sometimes for 60 years. Each pack has several of these hideaways, and they move pups to alternate homes 2 to 3 times in the first month, sometimes carrying them as far as 2 ½ miles.
The coyote is a very vocal animal. It has a number of vocalizations including barks, growls, yips, whines and howls. It uses a long howl to let other members of the pack know where it is. It uses short barks to warn of danger. When a pack of coyotes is welcoming a member into the pack the coyotes yip. Other vocalizations include growls when establishing dominance, whining and whimpering when males and females are establishing bonds and high-pitched barks to summon puppies.
Coyotes travel in single file, stepping precisely in each other's foot-prints. You might think you are following one animal across open terrain, only to see it turn into many once the tracks enter a forest and the hunters fan out to search for prey.
Coyotes have been known to live up to 14 years in the wild and 18 years in captivity. They seem to be better than dogs at observational learning.
[caption id="attachment_4252" align="aligncenter" width="292"] Coyote Tracks[/caption]
Breeding
Females have one estrous period per year between late January and early March. Most females don't breed until their 2nd year. They mate from late January to early March, with the young born 63 days later (late March to early May): 4 to 6 pups in normal years, 6 to 8 if pack members have recently been killed. Pups leave dens and begin eating solid food as early as 3 weeks; they are weaned at 5 to 7 weeks. If they disperse, they do so in autumn and early winter as food becomes scarce. Some coyotes migrate to high elevations in summer.
Predators
The most common enemy that coyotes face is disease. Bears and mountain lions will also prey upon coyotes; golden eagles and great horned owls prey on pups. Humans pose problems for coyotes as they try to navigate across our busy roads. Many coyotes are struck and killed by cars every year.
Killing coyotes produces more coyotes – A coyote family usually consists of a alpha pair, 4 to 6 pups during the summer months, and offspring of various ages from previous years. The alpha male and female stay together for as long as 12 years, but rarely for life.
When members of a family are killed (usually beta coyotes, yearlings, or pups), the size of a pack drops for up to one year, resulting in a temporary increase of available prey for pack members. Outsiders may then join the pack and mate with existing pack members, and the alpha male might mate with a subordinate female in addition to his mate. When multiple females give birth, they produce 6 to 8 pups each instead of the usual 4 to 6 – a biological response triggered by increased food supplies.
The abundance of food also results in unusually high survival rates for the pups, making it necessary for the adults to fill 2 to 3 times the usual number of mouths. But remember that the increase in food resulted from the loss of one or more pack members, so there are now fewer adults available to hunt. Large prey, like lambs and sheep, become a serious temptation.
Attacks on Humans
Coyote attacks on humans are uncommon and rarely cause serious injuries, due to the relatively small size of the coyote, but have been increasingly frequent, especially in southern California. In the absence of the harassment of coyotes practiced by rural people, urban coyotes are losing fear of humans, which is further worsened by people intentionally or unintentionally feeding coyotes. In such situations, some coyotes have begun to act aggressively towards humans, chasing joggers and bicyclists, confronting people walking dogs, and stalking small children. Non-rabid coyotes in these areas will sometimes target small children, mostly under the age of 10, though some adults have been bitten.
References
www. nhptv.org/natureworks/coyote.htm
Coyote, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.desertmuseum.org/kids/oz/long-fact-sheets/coyote.php
Secrets of the Oak Woodlands – Plants & Animals Among California's Oaks by Kate Marianchild
Photo by Nathan Wickstrum

Odocoileus hemionus californicus
Physical Characteristics
It is named for its ears, which are large like those of the mule. There are believed to be several subspecies, including the black-tailed deer. One of the principal means of distinguishing the closely related black-tailed deer and white-tailed deer is the growth habit of the buck's antlers. In the case of the California mule deer, the antlers fork in an upward growth, whereas the other species' antlers grow in a forward direction.
The mule deer's tail is black-tipped. Mule deer antlers are bifurcated; they “fork” as they grow, rather than branching from a single main beam. Each spring, a buck's antlers start to regrow almost immediately after the old antlers are shed. Shedding typically takes place in mid-February, with variations occurring by locale. Although capable of running, mule deer are often seen stotting (also called pronking), with all 4 feet coming down together.
The mule deer has a height of 31 – 42 in (80-106 cm) at the shoulders and a nose to tail length ranging from 3.9 to 6.9 ft (1.2 to 2.1 m). Adult bucks (male deer) normally weigh 120 – 330 lbs (55 – 150 kg), averaging around 200 lbs (92 kg), Does (female deer) are rather smaller and typically weigh from 95 to 200 lbs (43 to 90 kg), with an average of around 150 lbs (68 kg).
Habitat
Generally, the California mule deer has a preference for hill terrain, especially an oak woodland habitat. It is a browser and will typically take over 90% of its diet from shrubs and leaves and the balance from grasses.
Diet and Behavior
California mule deer usually browse close to lakes or streams providing their water source. From that reference point of water consumption they may roam 1 to 2 miles, and typically make their beds in grassy areas beneath trees within such a 1 mile distance radius from both water and forage. Repeated beds will often be scratched to a nearly level surface, about 2 meters in diameter. Less regularly used bedding areas are manifested as flattened grass. On hot summer days California mule deer often seek shade and rest in the mid-day.
In summer, California mule deer mainly browse on leaves of small trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants, but also consume many types of berry (including blackberry, huckleberry, salal and thimbleberry). In winter, they may expand their forage to conifers (particularly twigs of douglas fir, aspen, willow, dogwood, juniper, and sage). Year-round, they feed on acorns; grasses are a secondary food source. Where humans have encroached on historic deer habitat by suburban development or orchards, California mule deer will diversify their diet with garden plant material, with fruit trees, and occasionally, even with pet food.
Fawns and Does tend to forage together in familial groupings while bucks tend to travel singly or with other bucks. California mule deer browse most actively near dawn and dusk, but will also forage at night in open agricultural areas or when experiencing hunting pressure.
Breeding
Rutting (mating) season occurs in autumn when does come into estrus for a period lasting only several days. Males manifest aggressive behavior in competing for mates. Does will begin estrus again if they do not mate. The gestation period is approximately 200 days, with fawns arriving in the spring; the young will remain with mothers throughout the summer and become weaned in the autumn. Mule deer females usually give birth to two fawns, although if it is their first time having a fawn, they often only have one. The buck's antlers fall off in the winter-time and commence growing once more in spring in anticipation of next autumn's rut.
Predators
The several predators other than humans of mule deer include mountain lions. This leading natural predator often select weak, sickly, or young deer to kill, but will also take down the largest and healthiest mule deer with some regularity, as well. Bobcats, coyotes, black bears are capable of preying on adult deer, but usually either only attack fawns or infirm specimens or eat the deer after it has died naturally.
References
Mule Deer, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
California Mule Deer, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Photo by OVLC

Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Characteristics
The gray fox is a peppery gray on top, reddish-brown on its sides, chest and the back of its head. Its legs and feet are also a reddish color. It has a long bushy tail with a black stripe on top. The gray fox has pointed ears, a pointed muzzle and long hooked claws.
The gray fox is mainly distinguished from most other canids by its grizzled upper parts, strong neck and black-tipped tail, while the skull can be easily distinguished from all other North American canids by its widely separated temporal ridges that form a U-shape. There is little sexual dimorphism, save for the females being slightly smaller than males. The gray fox ranges from 30 to 44.3 in (76 to 112.5 cm) in total length. The tail measures 10.8 to 17.4 in (27.5 to 44.3 cm) of that length and its hind feet measure 3.9 to 5.9 in (100 to 150 mm). The gray fox typically weighs 7.9 to 15 lb (3.6 to 7 kg), though exceptionally can weigh as much as 20 lb (9 kg). It is readily differentiated from the red fox by the lack of “black stockings” that stand out on the latter. In contrast to all Vulpes and related (Arctic and fennec) foxes, the gray fox has oval (instead of slit-like) pupils.
The gray fox has short legs that are very powerful. These legs are designed to give the fox tremendous ability to balance itself while it climbs. Strong, hooked claws allow them to pull themselves up tree trunks and branches. The color of its fur hides it from predators
Habitat
The gray fox prefers wooded and brushy areas of the southwestern United States, but it also lives in the chaparral of California where most of the rainfall is in the winter, while the summers are hot and dry. They don’t like agricultural areas like the red fox. Its den sites are made in rock formations, hollow logs and trees, burrows and brush piles. The dens are often lined with grass and leaves. Some dens may be located 30 ft above the ground.
Diet
The gray fox is a solitary hunter, and eats a lot of different things such as berries, nuts, birds, insects, rabbits and other rodents. The grey fox is an omnivore. If it has more food than it can eat, the fox will bury it and go back later. It will mark the spot with urine so that it can find it when it gets hungry. In the arid regions of the chaparral it will eat more insects and plants than foxes living farther east.
Behavior
The gray fox is the only member of the dog family that can climb trees. It will climb a tree to escape its enemies. It climbs by grabbing the trunk with its forepaws and scrambling up with the long claws on its hind feet. It can make its way through the tree tops by jumping from branch to branch or shimmying down backwards. It will also sit in trees and ambush prey. It is not a fast runner, but can reach speeds of 42 mph for short distances.
Gray foxes are crepuscular animals meaning that they can be out at any time during the day although they tend to hunt at night. They are very territorial and mark their boundaries with urine.
Breeding
In California, most births occur in April. Usually 2-7 pups are born after 50-60 days. They are dark brown and blind at birth and weigh 3.5 oz. They open their eyes after 10 days. The mother stops nursing the pups after 10 weeks. During this time the father provides the whole family with food. Kits begin to hunt with their parents at the age of 3 months. By the time they are 4 months old, the kits will have developed their permanent dentition and can now easily forage on their own. The family group still remains together until autumn when the young reach sexual maturity. Then, they disperse.
Predators and Survival Techniques
The gray fox has few predators besides man. Hawks, eagles, owls, bobcats and dogs will kill and eat the pups.
References
Gray Fox, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.blueplanetbiomes.org/grey_fox.htm
www.nhptv.org/natureworks/grayfox.htm
Photo by Alan Schmierer, Wikimedia Commons

Mustela frenata
(subspecies: California weasel, Mustela f. xanthogenys)
Characteristics
The long-tailed weasel has a total length of 300-350mm and a tail comprising 40-70% of the head and body length. In most populations, females are 10-15% smaller than males. The eyes are black in daylight, but glow bright emerald green when caught in a spotlight at night. The dorsal fur is brown in summer, while the under parts are whitish and tinged with yellowish or buffy brown from the chin to the inguinal region. The tail has a distinct black tip. Long-tailed weasels in the southwestern US may have facial markings of a white or yellowish color. The long-tailed weasel moults twice annually, once in autumn (October to mid-November) and once in spring (March-April). Each moult takes about 3-4 weeks and is governed by day length and mediated by the pituitary gland. The long-tailed weasel has well developed anal scent glands, which produce a strong and musky odor. The long-tailed weasel drags and rubs its body over surfaces in order to leave the scent, to mark their territory and when started or threatened, to discourage predators.
Habitat
The long-tailed weasel dens in ground burrows, under stumps or beneath rock piles. It usually does not dig its own burrows, but commonly uses abandoned ground squirrel holes. The nest chamber is lined with grass and leaves and the fur of prey.
Diet
The long-tailed weasel is a fearless and aggressive hunter which may attack animals far larger than itself. When stalking, it waves its head from side to side in order to pick up the scent of its prey. It hunts small prey, such as mice, by rushing at them and kills them with one bite to the head. With large prey, such as rabbits, the long-tailed weasel strikes quickly, taking its prey off guard. It grabs the nearest part of the animal and climbs upon its body, maintaining its hold with its feet. The long-tailed weasel then maneuvers itself to inflict a lethal bite to the neck.
The long-tailed weasel is an obligate carnivore which prefers its prey to be fresh or alive, eating only the carrion stored within its burrows. Rodents are almost exclusively taken when they are available. Its primary prey consists of mice, rats, squirrels, chipmunks, shrews, moles and rabbits. Occasionally, it may eat small birds, bird eggs, reptiles, amphibians, fish, earthworms and some insects. It occasionally surplus kills, usually in spring when the kits are being fed, and again in autumn. Some of the surplus kills may be cached, but are usually left uneaten. Kits in captivity eat from ¼ - ½ of their body weight in 24 hours, while adults eat only 1/5 – 1/3. After killing its prey, the long-tailed weasel laps up the blood, but does not suck it, as is popularly believed. With small prey, the fur, feathers, flesh and bones are consumed, but from large prey, only some flesh is eaten. When stealing eggs, the long-tailed weasel removes each egg from its nest one at a time, then carries it in its mouth to a safe location where it bites off the top and licks out the contents.
Behavior
The long-tailed weasel is a solitary animal, except during mating season. It is most active in the night, but it also comes out in the day. Occasionally it can be seen hunting in the rocks near the outlet of the pond. The long-tailed weasel can climb trees and is a good swimmer. It uses lots of different vocalizations including squeals, squeaks, trills and purrs. It also releases a strong smelling musk during mating season and when it is frightened. It is very aggressive when its territory is invaded.
Breeding
The long-tailed weasel mates in July-August. Litter size generally consists of 5-8 kits, which are born in April-May. The kits are born partially naked, blind and weighting 3 grams, about the same weight of a hummingbird. The long-tailed weasel’s growth rate is rapid, as by the age of 3 weeks, the kits are well furred, can crawl outside the nest and eat meat. At this time, the kits weigh 21-27 grams. At 5 weeks of age, the kit’s eyes open, and they become physically active and vocal. Weaning begins at this stage, with the kits emerging from the nest and accompanying the mother in hunting trips a week later. The kits are fully grown by autumn and by this time, the family disbands. The females are able to breed at 3-4 months of age, while males become sexually mature at 15-18 months.
References
Long-tailed weasel, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Long-tailed Weasel-Mustela frenata; NatureWorks, New Hampshire Public Television, Durham, NH 03824
Photo by OVLC

Procyon lotor
Physical Characteristics
The raccoon has gray to brown fur. It is a stocky mammal about 2 to 3 feet long and weighs 10 to 30 pounds. It has a black mask around its eyes with white fur around the mask. It has a stripe that runs from its forehead to its nose and white fur around its nose. It has a bushy, ringed tail and black paws with 5 toes. The raccoon’s paws look a little like human hands. The raccoon’s toes are flexible and it is very good at grabbing, pulling things apart and holding things. The raccoon is a very good climber and can go down a tree backwards or face first!
Habitat
The raccoon lives in wooded areas near water. It is very adaptable though and is also found in suburbs and cities. It usually makes its den in a tree, but it may make its home in an abandoned woodchuck burrow, a cave, barn, sewer, or even a house!
Diet
The raccoon is omnivorous and opportunistic. Common foods include fruits, nuts, berries, insects, rodents, frogs, eggs and crayfish. In some rural areas, corn is a large part of the raccoon’s diet. In suburban and urban areas it often forages through trash cans for food. If water is near, the raccoon will sometimes put its food in the water and roll it around. It looks like it is washing its food, but it is not. The raccoon is softening the food and looking for foreign objects on the food.
Behavior
The raccoon is mostly nocturnal. It is also solitary, except for mothers and their young. In the winter the raccoon may sleep in its den for a few weeks but it does not hibernate. The raccoons usually walks, but it can run at speeds of up to 15 mph. It is also a good swimmer and often hunts for food in the water. The raccoon makes a variety of vocalizations including hisses, whistles, screams, growls and snarls.
Breeding
Mating season runs January through March. A little over 2 months after mating, the female gives birth to a litter of between 4 to 6 young. The babies are able to stand when they are about 4 to 6 weeks old. They are weaned at 70 days and start to hunt when they are between 9-12 weeks old. When they first come out of the den, the mother may carry them around by the neck, like a cat carries a kitten. The mother also teaches them how to hunt for food and climb trees. The mother raccoon is very protective of her young and will attack predators that come too close. Young raccoons have darker coats then mature raccoons. The babies may stay with their mother for up to a year.
The life expectancy of a raccoon in the wild is only 1.8 to 3.1 years, depending on the local conditions in terms of traffic volume, hunting, and weather severity.
Predators and Survival Techniques
The most important natural predators of the raccoon are bobcats, coyotes, and great horned owls, the latter mainly preying on young raccoons.
References
www.nhptv.org/natureworks/raccoon.htm
Raccoon, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Photo by Cary Bass-Deschênes

Bassariscus astutus
Physical Characteristics
The Ringtail is a small mammal with a distinctive appearance. It has a slender body, a long bushy tail with alternating black and white rings, and large round ears. Its fur is generally gray or brown, providing effective camouflage in its natural habitat.
Habitat
Ringtails are highly adaptable creatures found in a variety of habitats, including deserts, woodlands, and rocky areas. They are particularly adept at navigating rocky terrain and seek shelter in caves, trees, or abandoned structures.
Diet
Ringtails are omnivores with a diverse diet. They feed on insects, small mammals, birds, fruits, and vegetation. This adaptability in diet allows them to thrive in different environments and helps sustain them through various seasons.
Behavior
Known for their nocturnal habits, Ringtails are primarily active during the night. They are agile climbers and spend a significant amount of time in trees. Their behavior includes hunting, foraging, and engaging in social interactions with other Ringtails.
Breeding
Breeding among Ringtails typically occurs in the spring. After a gestation period, females give birth to a litter of young, usually ranging from two to four offspring. The young Ringtails are cared for by their mother until they are old enough to fend for themselves.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Ringtails face threats from predators such as owls, foxes, and larger mammals. To survive, they have developed evasive tactics, including their ability to climb trees swiftly. Their keen senses of sight and hearing also contribute to detecting potential threats.
Photo by Robertbody - Wikimedia Commons

Taxidea taxus
Physical Characteristics
The badger is a brown fur-covered mammal with short legs and low profile. The head appears pointed and small for the body. They have short ears and a short , furry tail.
Badgers weigh 4 to 12 kg. The body is flattened, and the legs are short and stocky. The fur on the back and flanks of the animal ranges from grayish to reddish. The ventrum is a buffy color. The face of the badger is distinct. The throat and chin are whitish, and the face has black patches. A white dorsal stripe extends back over the head from the nose.
Habitat
Badgers prefer to live in dry, open grasslands, fields, and pastures. They are found from high alpine meadows to sea level. The principal habitat requirements for this species appear to be sufficient food (burrowing rodents), friable soils, and relatively open, uncultivated ground. American badgers are primarily found in areas of low to moderate slope.
Diet
Badgers are carnivorous (meat eater). They eat a variety of small animals, including pocket gophers, ground squirrels, moles, rabbits, rats, deer mice, and voles. They also eat reptiles, insects, birds and their eggs, and carrion.
Behavior
Badgers are solitary animals who are mainly active at night. They tend to be inactive during the winter months. They are not true hibernators, but spend much of the winter in cycles of torpor that usually last about 29 hours. (torpor: a state of motor and mental inactivity with a partial suspension of sensibility)
Badgers are known to be excellent digging machines. Their powerfully built forelimbs allow them to tunnel rapidly through the soil and other substrates. They construct underground burrows for protection and sleeping. A typical badger den may be as far as 3 meters below surface, contain approximately 10 meters of tunnels and an enlarged sleeping chamber. Badgers use multiple burrows within their home range. Although home range size varies according to geographic area, distribution of food sources, and season, the general range of this species is 395 - 2,100 acres.
If threatened, they attack explosively with hissing, growling and biting.
Breeding
Mating occurs in late summer or early autumn, and young are born in March and early April. The average litter size is about 3, but ranges from 1 to 5. Male badgers are polygamous but usually do not reach sexual maturity until 2 years of age. Females generally reach sexual maturity as yearlings; impregnation has been reported in juvenile females as early as 4-5 months of age.
Female badgers prepare a grass-lined den before giving birth. Badgers are born blind and helpless with only a thin coat of fur. The eyes of the youngsters open at 4 to 6 weeks old. The young are nursed by their mother until they are 2 to 3 months old. The cubs may emerge from the den as early as 5 to 6 weeks old. Juveniles disperse at 5 to 6 months.
Predators
The American badger is an aggressive animal and has few natural enemies. Predation on smaller individuals by golden eagles, coyotes, cougars and bobcats have been reported. Bears occasionally kill American badgers.
References
naturemappingfoundation.org/natmap/ca/facts/mammals/badger.html
American badger, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.socalcamping.com/fieldguide/mammal/americanbadger.html
Photo by Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife

Didelphis virginiana
Physical Characteristics
The opossum is about the size of a house cat, has coarse grayish fur, a pointed face, and hairless, rounded ears. With its long hairless prehensile tail, the opossum can carry things such as nesting materials and even hang upside down from a tree branch. Opossum are about 2 to 3 feet long, including the tail, and weigh up to 15 pounds. Males are usually larger than females. Their feet resemble small hands with 5 widely spread fingers. All of the toes have a claw except for the opposable thumb on the rear foot. Opossum are well adapted for climbing. The opposable toe on the hind feet assists in holding on to small branches or similar structures.
Habitat
While their natural habitats are diverse, ranging from arid to moist and wooded to open fields, opossum prefer environments near streams or wetlands. They take shelter in abandoned burrows of other animals, in tree cavities and brush piles, and beneath other dense cover. In urban and suburban settings they may den under steps, porches, decks, garden tool sheds, and if accessible, in attics, garages, and beneath houses, where they make an untidy nest of sticks and whatever else may be available. The nest components appear piled together rather than woven or stacked. The old belief that opossum are nomadic without well-developed home ranges had been disproved. They have complex but flexible social relationships, with overlapping home ranges that allow high populations to develop when food is plentiful.
Diet
In its foraging, the nocturnal opossum is a true omnivore, feeding on fruits, nuts, green plants, insects, snails, frogs, birds and their eggs, and small mammals such as meadow voles, mice, and rats. It eats both fresh meat and carrion and is often seen feeding on road kills, a habit that makes it vulnerable to also being killed. Opossum that live near people may visit vegetable gardens, compost piles, garbage cans, or food dishes intended for dogs and cats. Having lost much of their natural fear of people, they will even enter a home through a pet door in search of food. Fortunately, they are not aggressive unless cornered, when they may hiss, growl, and show their teeth.
Behavior
Opossums are usually solitary and nomadic, staying in one area as long as food and water are easily available. Some families will group together in ready-made burrows or even under houses.Though they will temporarily occupy abandoned burrows, they do not dig or put much effort into building their own. As nocturnal animals, they favor dark, secure areas. These areas mey be below ground or above.
Threatened opossums (especially males) will growl deeply, raising their pitch as the threat becomes more urgent. Males make a clicking “smack” noise out of the side of their mouths as they wander in search of a mate, and females will sometimes repeat the sound in return. When separated or distressed, baby opossums will make a sneezing noise to signal their mother. If threatened, the baby will open its mouth and quietly hiss until the threat is gone.
Hissing and squawking is a defensive process that helps the opossum deter other animals from approaching it.
Breeding
The mating season extends from January to July; 2 litters are produced averaging about seven young each. After a short 13 day gestation period, the tiny, hairless young are born. Like other marsupials, the blind, helpless young find their way into the mother's pouch where they each attach to one of the 13 teats. No bigger than 1/2” and weighing less than 0.13 gram they do not let go for about 8 weeks, during which time they continue their development and growth. At approximately 11 weeks of age they can leave the pouch for short periods. When the young become too large for all of them to fit inside the pouch at one time, some will ride along by hanging on to the mother's back. The young are weaned at about 14 weeks, at which time they are about 9” long, not including the tail. Females mate again after the first litter of the season is able to live on their own. The second litter will be sufficiently grown to leave the mother by fall. Mortality in the young is high; most will perish before they are a year old. Those that survive will breed the following spring. Few opossum live beyond 3 years.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Opossum have atop running speed of only 7 mph, so they have developed strategies to escape enemies. They readily enter burrows and climb trees in an attempt to elude danger. When threatened, an opossum may bare its teeth, growl, or hiss. “Playing possum” is another characteristic reaction; the animal rolls over on its side, the animal's lips are drawn back, the teeth are bared, saliva forms around the mouth, the eyes close or half-closed, and a foul smelling fluid is secreted from the anal glands. The stiff, curled form can be prodded, turned over, and even carried away without reaction. The animal will typically regain consciousness after a period of between 40 minutes and 4 hours, a process which begins with slight twitching of the ears. When surprised during daylight, opossum appear bewildered and sluggish.
References
Virginia Opossum, From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn74123.html
Photo by Lauren McLaurin - Wikimedia Commons

Neotoma macrotis
Neotoma macrotis in Greek means “new cutter with big ears.”
Physical Characteristics
Woodrats usually rest in their houses during the day and venture out only after dusk. If you are fortunate to spot one during the day, look for big eyes, large mobile ears, a soft brown pelt covering an 8 inch body, and an 8 inch long lightly furred tail. They have extremely sharp, delicate claws that can penetrate bark easily, giving them good traction on trunks and branches. If you shine a powerful flashlight into trees at night you might see their red “eyeshine.”
Habitat
Dense foliage with 90% canopy coverage, including mature oaks of at least one species; earth that is neither bare nor covered with dense mat-forming shrub cover; large stumps, rocks, logs, or sizable living branches for anchoring houses; vegetation for building; California bay laurel leaves (or eucalyptus leaves) for parasite control; oaks or trees with cavities for nesting if possible; thistledown, shreddable bark, and other soft materials for lining nests.
Diet
Acorns, oak leaves (especially of coast live oak), elderberry, coffeeberry, poison oak (leaves, berries, and seeds), toyon (leaves and berries), California bay laurel (blossoms, fruit and seeds), chamise, willows (bark, leaves and flowers), manzanitas (leaves, berries), wavy-leafed soap plant, grasses, gooseberry, blackberry, sticky monkey flower, popcorn flower, honeysuckle, sages, and parts of more than 60 other kinds of plants; also insects, mushrooms and truffles.
Behavior
Mostly nocturnal. May reduce activity on moonlit or rainy nights. Woodrats like to avoid moonlight, but when they have to be out under a full moon, they try to stay under cover. In order to move quietly, they regularly clear leaves from trails by grabbing them with their teeth or flipping them aside with their paws. They are active year-round.
At night you may hear the woodrats thumping the tips of their tails against wood, earth, or leaves, a unique form of communication that can sound like drumming, whirring, rustling or rattling. The thump to indicate sexual availability, warn other woodrats of the approach of predators, or intimidate intruders.
Formerly thought to be solitary animals, woodrats are actually quite social. Each animal usually lives alone in his or her lodge, but the lodge may be surrounded by 10, 30, or well over a 100 other houses. Many of these structures are unoccupied except during the peak of the breeding season, a situation that seems to suit woodrats well. Females visit each other in unoccupied “common houses” adjacent to their residences, and “lovers” also meet in these houses. In addition to facilitating visits and romantic rendezvous, unoccupied houses are probably used for food storage, quick refuge in times of danger, temporary sleeping quarters and real estate that can be passed on to children.
Houses
Most houses are constructed around concealed logs, stumps, branches or rocks. Most are raggedy domes or inverted cones about 3 feet high and 3 or 4 feet wide, though some rise to a height of 8 feet. The house has multilevel complex of rooms, corridors and terraces that might easily fill a space one thousand times the size of its single owner/occupant. Such a house can remain in use for over 60 years as generation after generation keeps adding foliage to the outside and remodeling the inside by chewing out new passageways and rooms.
Large woodrat dwellings have 3 or 4 waterproof sleeping rooms that double as birthing nests and nurseries. Sleeping nests, which are often under logs or rocks in the safest part of the house, have been found to be dry after 4 days of drenching rain. Lodges also have pantries, leaching rooms, latrine areas and openings that admit light and air to every level. The occupants line their sleeping nests with soft plant material such as thistledown or finely shredded bark and clever fumigators that they are, scatter leaves of California bay laurel around the edges when available. They nibble the outside edges of these leaves to release powerful volatile oils that kill 73% of flea larvae and other nest parasites. They also replace used leaves with fresh ones every 2 to 3 days.
Woodrats often sort the food in their pantries into types: acorns in one room, fungi in another, leaves in the third. This separate stashing may have to do with the temperature and drying needs of the food source. The animals also place toxic leaves (sage, toyon, coffeeberry, etc) in special leaching rooms where they are left to outgas before being eaten.
Latrines are just outside the back door, but when danger or bad weather threatens, a house occupant will poop in the doorway. When too much dung accumulates in the doorway, the hygiene-conscious housekeeper will wall off that part of the house or have a housecleaning day and carry the dung away.
Composed of a dense mass of interlocking vegetation, a well-built woodrat house is nearly impregnable. Badgers, wild pigs and black bears may be the only animals that have the strength and anatomical equipment to breach a woodrat stronghold.
The interiors of woodrat lodges are cool and moist, providing relief from summer heat and dryness for the many creatures that take up residence in them. Mice find woodrat houses to be admirably suited to their needs, as do brush rabbits, salamanders, centipedes and dozens of other animals.
Breeding
Breeds from December to September, with a peak in mid-spring, or all year when acorns are especially plentiful. They have 1 to 4 pups, usually 2 to 3, with up to 5 litters per year. Mothers nurse for 3 weeks and care for their young for 8 weeks. Woodrats are polygamous, polyandrous, or monogamous, depending on the availability of members of the opposite sex. They do not migrate.
Nests are located in the house, and are constructed of shredded grass, leaves, and other miscellaneous materials (e.g., bird feathers). The nest is defended against competitors.
Predators
Bobcats, eagles, hawks, badgers, black bears, mountain lions, coyotes, foxes, skunks, long-tailed weasels, rattlesnakes, gopher snakes, feral & domestic dogs & cats, more.
References
California Wildlife Habitat Relationships System, California Department of Fish and Game, California Interagency Wildlife Task Group; www.dfg.ca.gov/biogeodata/cwhr/cawildlife.aspx
Secrets of the Oak Woodlands – Plants & Animals Among California's Oaks by Kate Marianchild
Photo by Zack Abbey - Wikimedia Commons

Sylvilagus audubonii
Physical Characteristics
The Desert Cottontail is a medium-sized rabbit known for its cotton-ball-like tail, which distinguishes it from other rabbit species. It has a sandy-brown fur coat, large ears, and a white underside. Its camouflaged coloration helps it blend into the arid environments it inhabits.
Habitat
This species is well adapted to arid and semi-arid regions, making its home in deserts, scrublands, and grasslands. Desert Cottontails utilize burrows for shelter and protection from predators, often located in sandy soil.
Diet
Desert Cottontails are herbivores with a diet consisting of grasses, plants, and occasionally, bark from shrubs. Their ability to extract moisture from their food allows them to thrive in environments with limited water sources.
Behavior
Primarily crepuscular, Desert Cottontails are most active during dawn and dusk. They are agile runners and use quick, evasive movements to escape predators. These rabbits are also known for their ability to stand on their hind legs to survey their surroundings.
Breeding
Breeding occurs throughout the year, with females giving birth to several litters annually. The offspring, called kits, are born in shallow nests. Desert Cottontails invest little time in parental care, as the kits quickly become independent.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Natural predators of Desert Cottontails include birds of prey, snakes, and mammals like foxes and coyotes. Their survival strategies involve swift running, erratic movements, and seeking refuge in burrows. Their keen senses aid in detecting approaching threats.
Photo by VJ Anderson - Wikimedia Commons

Sylvilagus bachmani
Characteristics
The brush rabbit is smaller than many of the other cottontails, and unlike most of them, the underside of its tail is grey rather than white (which may be why its common name does not include the word “cottontail”). The upper side of the brush rabbit’s fur varies from light brown to gray in color, while the underside is usually always white. Adult rabbit’s measures anywhere from 10-14 inches long and rarely weigh over 2 pounds.
Habitat
The brush rabbit inhabits dense, brushy cover, most commonly in chaparral vegetation. It also occurs in oak and conifer habitats and it will live in brush or grassland, and form networks of runways through the vegetation. The brush rabbit does not dig its own burrow or den, but uses the burrow of other species, brush piles, or forms. In the San Francisco Bay Area, it was found that the brush rabbit concentrates its activities at the edge of brush and exhibits much less use of grassy areas. It uses the interior brush of the wilderness and it was also found that this may be a better environment for it than the chaparral one. Studies done on the brush rabbit in Oregon also showed that it rarely left the brushy areas it inhabits.
Diet
Brush rabbits are herbivorous. They graze on a wide variety of grasses and forbs (e.g., clovers, foxtails, bromes, thistles) in grasslands, meadows, and riparian areas, always within, or very close to, dense brushy cover. Brush rabbits also browse, especially in fall and winter, on tender leaves, twigs, buds, and bark of blackberry, wild rose, and other species.
Behavior
A trapping study of the brush rabbit in the Berkley Hills in northern California indicated that males had a larger home ranges than females at all times of the year, and especially in May when females were moving the least. It is estimated the home ranges of the Brush Rabbit average just under 1 acre for males and just under .5 acres for females. The shape of these home ranges is usually circular but depending on the vegetation can be different in size and shape. Range use probably is not circular in shape or uniform, but rather consists of a series of runways that directly connect high use areas within brush habitat. Several rabbits have been observed to feed in the same area simultaneously, but maintain inter-individual distances of 1 to 24 feet before aggressive chases occurred. It has been shown that females tended to not overlap while males showed relatively extensive overlapping and this may indicate that females are territorial. Groups of brush rabbits may serve social purposes, such as predator detection, but this has not been proven.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Its predators include the coyote, foxes, the cougar, the bobcat, weasels, and various raptors and snakes. Its survival strategies include remaining immobile, when in brushy areas, and zigzag running when found and/or in open spaces.
References
Brush rabbit, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Brush Rabbit, California Wildlife Habitat Relationships System, California Depart. Of Fish & Game, California Interagency Wildlife Task Group
Photo by Walter Siegmund - Wikimedia Commons

Lepus californicus
Physical Characteristics
The Black-tailed Jackrabbit is a large hare with distinctive long ears and powerful hind legs. Its fur is generally a mix of gray and brown, providing effective camouflage in its arid habitat. As the name suggests, it has a black stripe on the upper side of its tail.
Habitat
Black-tailed Jackrabbits are well adapted to arid and semi-arid regions, including deserts, grasslands, and scrublands. They prefer open spaces and use their powerful legs to cover large distances quickly. They often seek shelter in burrows or dense vegetation.
Diet
These jackrabbits are herbivores with a diet primarily consisting of grasses, forbs, and shrubs. They have specialized digestive systems that allow them to extract nutrients from tough, fibrous plant material, enabling them to survive in environments with limited food resources.
Behavior
Black-tailed Jackrabbits are crepuscular and nocturnal, being most active during dawn and dusk. They are known for their impressive speed and agility, using evasive maneuvers to escape predators. Their keen senses of hearing and sight contribute to their ability to detect threats.
Breeding
Breeding occurs throughout the year, with females giving birth to litters of leverets. The young are born fully furred with open eyes and are quickly able to move about. Black-tailed Jackrabbits invest minimal parental care, and the young become independent at an early age.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Natural predators include birds of prey, coyotes, foxes, and snakes. Black-tailed Jackrabbits rely on their speed and agility to evade predators. They may use erratic jumps and sudden changes in direction to escape, and they can cover great distances in a short amount of time.
Photo by Jim Harper, Wikimedia Commons

Thomomys bottae
Characteristics
Five species of pocket gophers are found in California, with Botta’s pocket gopher, T. bottae, being most widespread. Depending on the species, they are 6 to 10 inches long, weighing a few hundred grams. Within any species, the males are larger than the females and can be nearly double their weight. Most gophers have brown fur that often closely matches the color of the soil in which they live. Their most characteristic features are their large cheek pouches, from which the word “pocket” in their name derives. These pouches are fur-lined, and can be turned inside out. They extend from the side of the mouth well back onto the shoulders. They have small eyes and a short, hairy tail, which they use to feel around tunnels when they walk backwards. The teeth of the pocket gopher continuously grow to accommodate the near constant wear and tear exerted upon them.
Habitat
A gopher needs dirt, an area of ground in which to build a home, mostly ruderal plant species to eat, and an area that is not inundated with water to survive. Gophers breathe air like we do, and if the soil is soaked with water, no oxygen will be present and they will suffocate.
The pocket gophers burrow system will typically consist of a main burrow with a number of laterals branching off from it. Systems found to be linear rather than branched are believed to belong to a male pocket gopher searching for a mate. Burrow diameters tend to be around 3 inches; areas larger than this diameter are believed to be resting or feeding areas. The nesting area of the pocket gopher will be filled with grass and other plant debris that the pocket gopher has formed into a ball – some as deep as 5 or 6 feet underground. A single pocket gopher can dig a burrow system consisting of up to 200 yards of tunnel in a year displacing as much as 2 ¼ tons of soil.
Diet
Pocket gophers are voracious herbivores; although they tend to prefer forbs and roots the pocket gopher will eat nearly any type of plant it comes across including grasses, shrubs, seedlings, and trees. Any animal matter consumed in its diet would most likely have been ingested by accident. Pocket gophers are most likely to consume plants in one of the following ways:
• Root feeding on plants they come across while foraging for food or searching for a mate. The pocket gopher commonly will clip the roots off below the surface where the damage done is not apparent. Occasionally the pocket gopher will clip the base of a plant to just above the surface.
• Pulling plants down into their tunnel from below.
• Occasionally the pocket gopher will venture up to a body length from its burrow opening to consume surface vegetation. This activity only seems to happen during the growing season.
Behavior
Gophers are active all year around, and live underground, in burrows that they dig themselves. Pocket gophers find their food by sense of smell. They either dig a tunnel toward a good smelling plant, or come upon the plant randomly in their digging, smell the plant, and then either pull the plant into their tunnel and eat it, or chew on the roots of the plant, or continue digging. Also, gophers take their food down into their burrow and store it for later use, and the burrow can be 6 feet or deeper below the surface. They don’t see or hear too well, and use the whiskers on their face and hairs on their tail to help them navigate their way around their underground world.
Only one gopher lives in each burrow system consisting of a main burrow and burrow side branches, and between each burrow system is a zone not used by any gopher; this zone is kind of like a demilitarized zone, a space that neither neighboring gopher uses, maybe to reduce conflict (gophers are very territorial). Pocket gophers expend so much energy building their burrows, many, many times more than any animal aboveground, that they probably have no extra energy for fighting. Their territory (their burrow system) size, and the size of the “demilitarized zone” changes somewhat depending on the amount and quality of plant material (food) present.
Pocket gophers expel the soil they excavate from the burrow in a fan shape radiating away from the burrow opening. They will use both their claws and teeth while digging, pushing the soil and debris behind them with hind claws, then flip over in a somersault motion and push the material out of the burrow with their forefeet and chest.
Breeding
Depending on the species and local conditions, pocket gophers may have a specific annual breeding season, or may breed repeatedly through the year. Each litter typically consists of 2 to 5 young, although this may be much higher in some species. The young are born blind and helpless, and are weaned at around 40 days. Pocket gophers reach sexual maturity about 1 year of age and can live up to 3 years.
Positive Actions – The Purpose of a Gopher
What is the real purpose of gophers? No one really knows, but here are a few observations researchers have noted so far.
Gophers mix and aerate the soil, bringing deeper layers of soil to the surface when they create the soil mounds, where, over time, the effects of light, water and wind, make those soil minerals available to plants. Thus soil fertility is increased. Aerating the soil adds oxygen, which aids the growth of certain plant species. The activities of gophers increase plant diversity, as different species of plants grow on those soil mounds, plants whose germination and growth were inhibited in the surrounding soil. The mounds of soil they push to the surface in the process of digging their tunnels actually reduce erosion on steep slopes. Scientists have speculated that gophers may help to prevent the extinction of certain ruderal/early successional plant species (whose seeds may only have a certain life span), by periodically providing the perfect growing conditions for their germination and growth, in a natural plant community, such as a forest.
When a gopher leaves the area and moves to a new spot with fresh plant material, the burrow system that the gopher has abandoned becomes a home for a toad, snake, etc.
Predators
Main predators of this species include coyotes, long-tailed weasels and snakes, but other predators include skunks, owls, bobcats, and hawks.
References
Botta’s pocket gopher, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Pocket gopher, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Pocket Gophers (Thomomys bottae), www.laspilitas.com/animals/thomomys/thomomys-bottae.htm
How to Manage Pests; Pests in Gardens and Landscapes; Pocket Gophers; University of California Agriculture & Natural Resources, UC IPM Online, Statewide Integrated Pest Management Program
www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7433.html
Pocket Gophers and Pocket Gopher Control;
www.crittergetteronline.com/Pgophers/pgofact.html
Photo by VJ Anderson - Wikimedia Commons

Microtus californicus
Physical Characteristics
The California Vole is a small rodent with a compact body, short legs, and a short tail. It typically has a brown or grayish-brown fur coat, and its eyes and ears are relatively small. Voles generally have a stout appearance.
Habitat
California Voles inhabit a variety of environments, including grasslands, meadows, and agricultural fields. They create burrows in the ground for shelter and protection, often constructing intricate tunnel systems.
Diet
As herbivores, California Voles primarily feed on grasses, plants, and seeds. They play a role in seed dispersal and may consume a variety of vegetation depending on sseasonal availability.
Behavior
California Voles are active throughout the day and night. They are excellent burrowers and create networks of tunnels for foraging and nesting. Their social behavior includes living in colonies, and they are known for their rapid reproduction rates.
Breeding
Breeding among California Voles can occur throughout the year, with females giving birth to litters of several pups. The young voles are born altricial and require maternal care until they are weaned. They reach maturity quickly and may start reproducing shortly after.
Predators and Survival Techniques
California Voles face threats from predators such as birds of prey, snakes, and mammals like foxes and coyotes. Their survival techniques involve staying close to their burrows for quick retreats, and their prolific reproductive strategy helps maintain population levels.
Photo by Jerry Kirkhart - Wikicommons

Scapanus latimanus
Physical Characteristics
The Broad-footed Mole is a small, fossorial mammal with a cylindrical body, velvety fur, and strong forelimbs adapted for digging. It has a distinctive broad shovel-like hand with well-developed claws, which it uses to create intricate tunnel systems underground.
Habitat
Broad-footed Moles are well adapted to a subterranean lifestyle and are found in a variety of habitats, including grasslands, woodlands, and meadows. They prefer loose, sandy soils that facilitate easier tunnel construction.
Diet
As insectivores, Broad-footed Moles primarily feed on earthworms, insects, and other invertebrates found in the soil. Their underground lifestyle allows them to exploit the resources within the soil for sustenance.
Behavior
These moles are solitary and highly fossorial, spending the majority of their lives underground. They construct complex tunnel systems for foraging and nesting. Their keen sense of touch helps them navigate and locate prey in complete darkness.
Breeding
Breeding typically occurs in late winter or early spring. Female moles give birth to a litter of small, hairless pups within the underground burrow. The young moles grow rapidly and become independent after a few weeks.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Broad-footed Moles face threats from predators such as snakes, birds of prey, and larger mammals. Their main survival technique involves staying underground and relying on their secretive and subterranean lifestyle to avoid detection.
Photo by Sarah Murray, Wikimedia Commons

Peromyscus californicus
Physical Characteristics
The California Mouse is a medium-sized rodent with a soft, dense fur coat that ranges in color from brown to gray. It has large eyes, rounded ears, and a relatively long tail. Its tail is bi-colored, darker on top and lighter underneath.
Habitat
Native to the western United States, California Mice are commonly found in a variety of habitats, including chaparral, grasslands, and woodlands. They build nests in sheltered areas such as burrows, brush piles, or dense vegetation.
Diet
California Mice are omnivores with a diet consisting of seeds, fruits, insects, and other vegetation. Their adaptable feeding habits allow them to thrive in diverse environments, and they play a role in seed dispersal within their ecosystems.
Behavior
Nocturnal by nature, California Mice are most active during the night. They are skilled climbers and ground foragers, using their sharp sense of smell to locate food. They are also known for their agility and ability to escape predators.
Breeding
Breeding typically occurs in the spring and summer months. Female California Mice give birth to litters of several pups. The young are born altricial and require maternal care until they are weaned. They become sexually mature within a few months.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of California Mice include snakes, birds of prey, and mammals such as foxes and owls. Their survival techniques involve remaining vigilant, using cover and burrows for protection, and relying on their agility to escape potential threats.
Photo by Whatiguana - Wikimedia Commons

Neotoma lepida
Physical Characteristics
The Packrat, also known as the Woodrat, is a medium-sized rodent with a robust body, large eyes, and a relatively long tail. It has soft fur that can vary in color from gray to brown, and it often has a distinctive bi-colored tail.
Habitat
Packrats are adaptable rodents found in a range of habitats, including deserts, woodlands, and rocky areas. They are skilled builders of nests, known as "middens," which they construct using twigs, leaves, and various materials. These nests serve as both shelter and food storage.
Diet
Packrats are herbivores with a diet consisting of a variety of plant materials, including leaves, twigs, seeds, and fruits. They are also known to collect and store food items in their nests. This behavior plays a role in seed dispersal and contributes to the regeneration of vegetation in their habitat.
Behavior
Nocturnal by nature, Packrats are most active during the night. They are skilled climbers and foragers, using their keen senses to locate food. The habit of collecting various objects and incorporating them into their nests is a distinctive behavioral trait.
Breeding
Breeding among Packrats typically occurs in the spring and summer. Female Packrats give birth to litters of several pups. The young are born altricial and require maternal care until they are weaned. They become independent and start foraging on their own as they grow.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Packrats include snakes, owls, and mammals like foxes and coyotes. Packrats rely on their secretive and nocturnal behavior, as well as the complexity of their nests, to avoid detection. Their agility in climbing also aids in escaping ground predators.
Photo by Jules Jardinier - Wikimedia Commons

Reithrodontomys megalotis
Physical Characteristics
The Western Harvest Mouse is a small rodent characterized by a relatively short tail, rounded ears, and a compact body. Its fur is typically a mix of brown and gray, providing effective camouflage in its grassland and agricultural habitat.
Habitat
This mouse is commonly found in grasslands, fields, and agricultural areas across western North America. It prefers habitats with dense vegetation and uses grassy areas for nesting and foraging. Its adaptability allows it to thrive in a variety of environments.
Diet
As an omnivore, the Western Harvest Mouse feeds on a varied diet that includes seeds, grains, insects, and small invertebrates. It is particularly adept at climbing plants to access seeds and utilizes its agile nature for foraging in grassy habitats.
Behavior
Western Harvest Mice are nocturnal and spend their nights foraging for food. They are skilled climbers and build nests in grassy vegetation, often a few feet above the ground. Their behavior includes exploring their surroundings and creating intricate nests.
Breeding
Breeding typically occurs during the warmer months. Female Western Harvest Mice give birth to litters of small, altricial pups. The young mice grow quickly, and the mother provides maternal care until they are weaned. They become independent as they mature.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Western Harvest Mice include owls, snakes, and small mammals. These mice use their agility and ability to climb to escape ground-based predators. Their small size and nocturnal habits also contribute to avoiding detection.
Photo by Erin Lalime - Wikimedia Commons

Spilogale gracilis
Physical Characteristics
The Western Spotted Skunk is a small skunk species with a distinctive black and white color pattern. It has spots on its back, and its tail is bushy with a white tip. It is smaller and more slender than the more common striped skunk species.
Habitat
Western Spotted Skunks are found in a variety of habitats, including grasslands, woodlands, and shrublands. They are adaptable and can thrive in both open and more densely vegetated areas. They may use burrows, rock crevices, or other shelters for nesting.
Diet
As omnivores, Western Spotted Skunks have a diverse diet that includes insects, small mammals, fruits, and plants. Their ability to climb trees and dig for invertebrates allows them to exploit various food sources.
Behavior
Western Spotted Skunks are primarily nocturnal, and they are known for their acrobatic and agile movements. When threatened, they may perform a "handstand" display, raising their hindquarters and standing on their front paws as a warning signal. They are also skilled climbers and may take refuge in trees.
Breeding
Breeding typically occurs in late winter or early spring. Female Western Spotted Skunks give birth to a small litter of young. The young are born altricial and are cared for by the mother until they are old enough to venture out on their own.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Western Spotted Skunks include larger mammals, birds of prey, and some carnivores. Their defense mechanism includes spraying a noxious liquid from their anal glands, similar to other skunk species. The unique "handstand" display may also serve as a deterrent.
Photo by Garst, Warren, 1922-2016, photographer, Wikimedia Commons

Mephitis mephitis
Physical Characteristics
The striped skunk has a black body with a white stripe along each side of its body.; the two stripes join into a broader white area at the nape. Its forehead has a narrow white stripe. Similar in size to a domestic cat, this species is the heaviest species of skunk, though it is not as long (in body or tail length) as the American hog-nosed skunk. They have relatively short, well-muscled legs, and long front claws for digging. Adult specimens can weigh variously from 2.5 to 15 lbs (1.1 to 6.8 kg), although the average weight is 6-8 lb (2.7-3.6 kg). This species' head-and-body length (excluding the tail) is 13 to 18 in (33 to 46 cm). Males tend to be around .10% larger than females. The bushy tail is 7 to 10 in (18 to 25 cm), and sometimes has a white tip. The presence of a striped skunk is often first made apparent by its odor. It has well-developed anal scent glands (characteristic of all skunks) that can emit a highly unpleasant odor when the skunk feels threatened.
Habitat
Skunks can be found in a number of habitats, including woodlands, grasslands and agricultural lands.
Diet
The striped skunk is omnivorous and has a varied diet. Its diet consists mostly of insects and insect larvae such as beetles, grasshoppers and crickets. It also eats earthworms, snails, crayfish, wasps and ants. It preys on vertebrates like frogs and small mammals including voles, mice, moles, rats and squirrels. It also eats bird eggs. Plant matter the skunk eats include blackberries, raspberries, grains, corn, and nuts. Skunks eat mostly insects and mammals during the spring and summer. During the fall and winter, more plant matter is consumed. In settled areas, skunks also seek human garbage. Less often, skunks may be found acting as scavengers, eating bird and rodent carcasses left by cats or other animals. Pet owners, particularly those of cats, may experience a skunk finding its way into a garage or basement where pet food is kept. Skunks commonly dig holes in lawns in search of grubs and worms.
Skunks are one of the primary predators of the honeybee, relying on their thick fur to protect them from stings. The skunk scratches at the front of the beehive and eats the guard bees that come out to investigate. Mother skunks are known to teach this behavior to their young.
Behavior
The skunk is crepuscular. Beginning its search for food at dawn and dusk. At sunrise, it retires to its den, which may be in a ground burrow, or beneath a building, boulder, or rock pile. While the male dens itself, several females may live together. Males and females occupy overlapping home ranges through the greater part of the year, typically 0.77 to 1.5 sq mi (2 to 4 km) for females and up to 7.7 sq mi (20 km) for males. The striped skunk does not hibernate but instead goes into a dormant or semi-active state. Outside the breeding season, males are solitary and try to build fat reserves while females defend their maternity dens.
Although they have excellent senses of smell and hearing, they have poor vision, being unable to see objects more than about 10 ft (3 m) away, making them vulnerable to death by road traffic. They are short-lived; their lifespan in the wild is no more than 3 years, with most living only up to a year.
Breeding
Breeding in the skunk mostly occurs from mid-February to mid-April. A skunk breeds only once a year. Male skunks are polygamous and will mate with several females in succession. When encountering an estrous female, a male will approach her from the rear and then smell and lick the vulva area. The male then grasps the female by the nape and then mounts and copulates with her. Once a female is impregnated she doesn't allow any more copulations and will fight off any male that tries to mount her. However, females that lose their litters may lead to a later mating. The young are born in May or early June. Skunks tend to have litters of 4 to 8 with 2 and 10 being extremes. The young are born blind, deaf and hairless but have their striping pattern. By 8 days, the young's musk odor can be emitted. By 22 days, the young's eyes open. The young are weaned about 2 months after birth, but generally stay with their mother until they are ready to mate, at about one year of age.
The mother is protective of her young, spraying at any sign of danger. The male plays no part in raising the young.
Predators
Most predators of the Americas, such as wolves, foxes and badgers, seldom attack skunks, presumably out of fear of being sprayed. The exceptions are dogs, reckless predators whose attacks fail once they are sprayed, and the great horned owl, the animal's only serious predator, which has a poor to non-existent sense of smell.
References
Striped Skunk, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Skunk, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Photo by Dcrjsr, Wikimedia Commons

Neotamias speciosus
Physical Characteristics
The Eastern Chipmunk is a small, striped rodent with a distinctive pattern of stripes along its back. It has a reddish-brown fur coat with alternating dark and light stripes. Its cheeks are pouch-like, allowing it to store and transport food.
Habitat
Eastern Chipmunks are commonly found in a variety of habitats, including woodlands, gardens, and suburban areas. They create burrows in the ground, often with multiple entrances, where they nest and store food.
Diet
As omnivores, Eastern Chipmunks have a varied diet that includes seeds, nuts, fruits, insects, and even small vertebrates. They are known for their habit of storing food in their cheek pouches and caching it in their burrows for later consumption.
Behavior
Eastern Chipmunks are diurnal, being most active during the day. They are agile climbers and spend time foraging on the ground and in trees. Their behavior includes the characteristic "chip" sound they make as an alert or warning to other chipmunks in the area.
Breeding
Breeding typically occurs in the spring and summer months. Female Eastern Chipmunks give birth to litters of several pups. The young chipmunks are born hairless and are cared for by the mother until they are weaned. They become independent as they mature.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Eastern Chipmunks include birds of prey, snakes, and mammals such as foxes and weasels. Chipmunks use their burrows for shelter and quick escapes. Their ability to climb trees also aids in avoiding ground-based predators.
Photo by Linda Tanner - Wikimedia Commons

Otospermophilus beecheyi
Named for Frederick William Beechey, who explored much of Northern California in 1826-28 as captain of his majesty’s ship Blossom, this squirrel is also sometimes called the Beechey Ground Squirrel.
Otospermophius in Greek means seed-loving squirrel with prominent ears.
Characteristics
Gray, light brown and dusky fur is mixed to give the California ground squirrel’s upperparts a mottled appearance. A band of slightly darker fur, flecked with light gray, extends from the head over the middle of the back. Gray fur forms a cape over the sides of the head and shoulders. This gray cape may have a protective function, breaking up the animal’s body outline and making it more difficult for a predator to spot. Light buff or gray yellow fur covers the undersides.
Whitish fur rings the eyes and perhaps protects the squirrel’s eyes from too intense sunlight. Black fur edges the outer rims of the ears. The tail, 5 to 7 inches long and more than half the length of the head and body, is covered with mixed yellowish gray and black hairs and is lighter on the underside. Generally, California ground squirrels measure between 16 and 19 inches total length.
Habitat
California ground squirrels live in burrows. Hillsides or low earth banks are preferred sites because the burrows can be excavated horizontally, although many burrows are dug down vertically several feet to assure protection. Burrows, which are about 4 to 5 inches in diameter, may vary in length from 5 feet to more than 35 feet and may be used by many generations of ground squirrels. Some burrows house single squirrel occupants, while others may be colonial homes for several squirrels. Short burrows may have a single opening, but longer branched burrows often have 2 or more openings. In studying California ground squirrels, one group of scientists found a squirrel home with 6 females and 5 males which consisted of tunnels totaling 741 feet in length and had 33 openings. The deepest tunnel was 28 feet below ground. Although most tunnel excavation work is done in the spring, digging and burrow improvement is a continuing process.
Entering a nest burrow, a squirrel would have found cool, moist passageways opening into nurseries, food storage rooms, and spacious sleeping chambers, as well as side tunnels that ran upward and ended just below the surface. If a predator came in the “front door,” the squirrel would have raced up one of these side tunnels and burst through a thin layer of soil to escape.
Generally, ground squirrels spend most of their life within a fairly small area. In fact, most of their time is spent within about 100 feet of their burrow and rarely does a ground squirrel go beyond a 150 yard radius of its burrow.
Diet
Nuts & Seeds: Acorns, Calif. black walnuts, grass seeds, seeds of elderberry, jimson weed, nightshade, tarweed, poison oak, mallow, poppies and more.
Fruits: Manzanita berries, coffeeberries, gooseberries, prickly pears and others.
They also like insects such as grasshoppers, beetles, crickets, caterpillars and others. They like the eggs from Calif. Quail, Calif. Towhees, spotted towhees and other ground nesting birds.
Finally they like fungi, roots, bulbs and carrion.
Behavior
The California ground squirrel is diurnal, which means it is most active in the daytime. It lives in colonies, but the squirrels tend not to socialize with each other. They often spend their time feeding, sunning, dust-bathing, and grooming. In one of their favorite sun bathing positions the squirrels lies with its belly on the ground, elbows on the ground with forearms extended and head raised. They also like to sit straight up, motionless, with their arms hanging down across their chest and their paws resting one upon the other. From this position they love to look about. In fact, their vision is thought to be about equivalent to a human’s.
California ground squirrels loosen and aerate soil and bring seeds to the surface, contributing to plant growth and diversity. They cache seeds that may germinate if they are never retrieved for eating. They provide “pre-dug” dens and nests or owls, foxes and coyotes. They also play host to uninvited lodgers, including salamanders, western toads and amphibians. Mice and voles go in and out of squirrel burrow to raid the pantries, and spiders and insects live in the tunnel walls.
California ground squirrels are ever vigilant and ready to sound an alarm if danger is perceived. If frightened, a squirrel often makes long leaps and emits a sharp, metallic alarm cry several times in rapid succession. The squirrel may pause near its burrow and clink at intervals, or it may drop down into its tunnel system.
In the colder parts of their range, California ground squirrels hibernate for several months, but in areas where winters have no snow, most squirrels are active year round. In those parts where the summers are hot they may also estivate for periods of a few days.
Breeding
The breeding season in southern California starts in December, later in colder climates, depending on when they emerge from hibernation, which may be as late as mid-spring. Mating chases are common, with males chasing females until she is ready to accept one. Females may mate with more than one male and often mate more than one time. After about a month long gestation period, a mother squirrel may give birth from 3 to as many as 11 babies, with from 5 to 6 being an average. Mothers care for the young, moving them frequently to avoid predation. The babies remain underground with the mother. Their eyes open at about 5 weeks, leave burrows at 5 to 8 weeks, are weaned at 6 to8 weeks. At first the youngsters will play and feed very near the burrow entrance under the mother’s close and attentive supervision. They begin to burrow as early as 8 weeks and reach sexual maturity at one year or more.
California ground squirrels may live as long as 6 years, but 3 to 4 years is probably their average life span in the wild.
Predators and survival techniques
California ground squirrels are frequently preyed on by rattlesnakes. They are also preyed on by eagles, raccoons, foxes, and weasels. Since the 1970s, interdisciplinary research at the University of California Davis, has shown that the squirrels use a variety of techniques to reduce rattlesnake predation. Some populations of California ground squirrels have varying levels of immunity to rattlesnake venom as adults. Female squirrels with pups either roll on or chew on the skins shed by rattlesnakes and then lick themselves and their pups (who are never immune to venom before one month of age) to disguise their scent.
Another strategy is for a squirrel to swish around its tail from side to side. The tail-swishing appears to convey the message “I'm alert and ready to fight! Approach at your own risk!” These two confrontational techniques also distract the snake from any nearby squirrel burrows containing pups.
If an undaunted rattlesnake approaches a California ground squirrel, however, the squirrel pulls another trick out of its bag: it floods its moving tail with extra blood, causing it to heat up. The infrared-sensing pits on the sides of the rattlesnake's head detect the heat, apparently causing the snake to perceive a larger animal than the one it is actually facing.
If the rattlesnake is really hungry, it may still decide to go after pups. First it searches for an adult female, hoping that she has young in a nearby burrow. As the snake glides past a mother squirrel, she stands stock-still to avoid revealing the location of her young. But when the snake gets close to the entrance of her nest burrow, she erupts into action, using her front feet to bombard the rattler with sand and pebbles, and biting or scratching its tail, which can cause a serious infection. The sandstorm may provoke the snake to rattle, a deliberately induced response that enables the squirrel to assess the degree of threat the snake poses based on its size and metabolic activity level. Other squirrels may come to her aid at this point, biting and harassing the snake. If the rattlesnake manages to slide into a tunnel, the mother squirrel may race into the burrow through a different opening and block the snake's progress with dirt.
In spring, California ground squirrel pups make up about 70 percent of the diet of northern Pacific rattlesnakes.
Other Predators
Birds – eagles, hawks, falcons, owls, roadrunners
Mammals – black bears, badgers, raccoons, foxes, coyotes, bobcats, mountains, weasels, domestic dogs & cats
Snakes – other rattlesnakes, gopher snakes, possibly other large snakes
References
California ground squirrel, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
California Ground Squirrels, Otospermophilus beecheyi; www.mary.cc/squirrels/cgs.htm
California Ground Squirrel, Spermophilus beecheyi; NatureWorks, New Hampshire Public Television, Durham, NH 03824
Secrets of the Oak Woodlands – Plants & Animals Among California's Oaks by Kate Marianchild
Photo by Holly Cheng, Wikimedia Commons

Sciurus niger
Physical Characteristics
The eastern fox squirrel (Sciurus niger) is a relatively large North American squirrel with a long, bushy tail and very variable coloration. Its scientific name, niger, means ‘black’ and refers to the black fur of the first individual to be described. However, the common name ‘fox squirrel’ refers to the yellowish-red, fox-like color that is also common in this species.
The coloration of the eastern fox squirrel varies both within and between different populations. In most areas of southern California, the animals upper body is brown-grey to brown-yellow with a typically brownish-orange underside.
The male and female eastern fox squirrel are similar in appearance.
Size
Total length: 17.7 to 27.6 inches
Tail length: 7.9 to 13.0 inches
Weight
1.1 to 2.2 lb
Habitat
The eastern fox squirrel typically inhabits open woodlands with scattered trees and a relatively open understory. It is commonly found in habitats with trees that produce nuts which can be stored over winter, such as oaks, walnuts and pines. The eastern fox squirrel can also be found in urban areas.
Diet
The diet of the eastern fox squirrel is quite varied, but consists mostly of the nuts and seeds of trees such as oak, walnut, and pine. The eastern fox squirrel also consumes other seeds as well as fruits, buds, flowers, bark, twigs, sap, fungi, and crops such as corn, wheat and soybeans. Some animal food is occasionally taken, such as insects, birds and their eggs, and even dead fish. The eastern fox squirrel has also been known to gnaw on bones, and antlers to obtain calcium and other minerals. This species stores nuts by burying them in the ground, giving it a supply of food for the winter months. Many of these nuts are never retrieved, and can go on to sprout into new trees.
Behavior
An adept climber, the eastern fox squirrel has sharp, curved claws which give it good grip, as well as unusually flexible ankle joints which allow it to rotate its feet by 180 degrees as it descends tree trunks head-first. This species is also able to hang by its hind limbs while grasping food in its front feet, and its long tail assists with balance as it moves through the trees. However, although it is well adapted to life in the trees, the eastern fox squirrel also spends a considerable amount of its time on the ground.
The eastern fox squirrel is active year-round and usually forages during the day. This species builds leaf nests, known as dreys, in which to shelter and to raise its young. The drey is built in a tree and consists of a large ball of leaves and shredded material on a platform of twigs, with an entrance at the side and with a lining of shredded material. Each squirrel may use a number of different leaf nests, and this species will also nest inside tree cavities, particularly in winter
The eastern fox squirrel is not particularly social, although some individuals occasionally share a nest in winter. The home ranges of different individuals overlap, but females with young often defend a small core area of their range. Body and tail postures play an important role in communication in the eastern fox squirrel, as do scents and sounds. The most common vocalization is a series of barks, while a chatter bark is given in alarm and the teeth are chattered as a sign of aggression.
Breeding
The eastern fox squirrel usually has two main breeding periods each year, the first occurring between November and February and the second between April and July. During these breeding periods, each female is receptive for less than one day, and noisy chases take place as dominant males pursue females with which to mate. The female eastern fox squirrel usually gives birth to 2 or 3 young after a gestation period of 44 to 45 days, although up to 7 young are sometimes born.
The young eastern fox squirrels are naked at birth, with their eyes and ears closed. Their fur begins to grow after about a week, but their eyes do not open until they are about five weeks old. The young squirrels first leave the nest at 7 to 8 weeks old, but are not fully weaned until they are about 12 weeks old. Some female eastern fox squirrels can raise two litters of young each year, with the young from the second litter occasionally staying in the nest with the female for their first winter.
Male eastern fox squirrels reach sexual maturity at about 10 to 11 months old. Females have been known to give birth as early as eight months old, but most do not breed until the year following their birth.
Predators and Survival Techniques
The eastern fox squirrel is hunted by a variety of predators, including bobcats, foxes, coyotes, raccoons, hawks, owls and snakes, but individuals that survive can potentially live for up to 13 years in the wild, with females tending to live longer than males.
References
www.arkive.org/eastern-fox-squirrel/sciurus-niger/
Photo by OVLC

Sciurus griseus
Physical Characteristics
The Western Gray Squirrel is a tree-dwelling rodent with a bushy tail, prominent ears, and a grayish fur coat. Its coloration can vary, with individuals having a mix of gray and reddish-brown tones. They have a white underbelly and a distinctive, long, and bushy tail.
Habitat
Western Gray Squirrels inhabit a variety of habitats, including coniferous and mixed forests, woodlands, and urban areas. They are adept climbers and build nests, called dreys, in trees for shelter and protection.
Diet
As herbivores, Western Gray Squirrels primarily feed on nuts, seeds, cones, fruits, and fungi. They are known for their ability to manipulate objects with their front paws and are skilled at opening pine cones to access seeds.
Behavior
Western Gray Squirrels are diurnal and spend much of their day foraging for food. They are agile climbers, using their strong hind legs and sharp claws to navigate trees. Their behavior includes territorial displays, vocalizations, and social interactions during the mating season.
Breeding
Breeding typically occurs in late winter or early spring. Female Western Gray Squirrels give birth to litters of several pups. The young squirrels, called kits, are born hairless and are cared for by the mother until they are weaned. They become independent as they mature.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Western Gray Squirrels include birds of prey, snakes, and mammals like raccoons and domestic cats. Their survival techniques involve being vigilant for predators, using tree cover for protection, and employing quick and agile movements to escape potential threats.
Photo by Nathan Wickstrum

Phrynosoma (Anota) coronatum
Physical Characteristics
The Coast Horned Lizard has a distinctive flattened body covered in spines and a unique, flattened crown of horns on its head. Its coloration varies, providing effective camouflage in its coastal habitat, ranging from brown to gray, and it may have blotchy patterns.
Habitat
Found along the western coast of North America, the Coast Horned Lizard inhabits coastal areas, chaparral, and sandy habitats. It is adapted to a range of environments, including dunes and coastal scrublands.
Diet
Coast Horned Lizards primarily feed on ants, using their specialized tongue to capture them. They are sit-and-wait predators, relying on their camouflage to ambush prey. Their diet may also include other small invertebrates.
Behavior
These lizards are known for their cryptic behavior and reliance on camouflage. When threatened, they may puff up their bodies, making themselves appear larger, and they can shoot blood from their eyes as a defense mechanism against predators.
Reproduction
Breeding typically occurs in the spring. Female Coast Horned Lizards lay clutches of eggs in sandy soil. The eggs hatch, and the young lizards emerge. Reproduction is influenced by environmental factors and the availability of suitable habitats.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Coast Horned Lizards include birds, mammals, and snakes. Their survival techniques include camouflage, defensive postures, and the ability to squirt blood from their eyes, which can startle and deter predators.
Photo by Nathan Wickstrum

Uta stansburiana
Physical Characteristics
The Common Side-blotched Lizard is a small to medium-sized lizard with a slender body and a relatively short tail. It is known for the distinctive coloration on its sides, which includes a blotch or spot. The coloration can vary, and they may have patterns of stripes or spots.
Habitat
This lizard species is adaptable and can be found in a variety of habitats, including deserts, grasslands, and rocky areas. They are often seen basking in the sun on rocks or other surfaces to regulate their body temperature.
Diet
Common Side-blotched Lizards are insectivores, feeding primarily on insects and other small invertebrates. They use their keen vision and quick movements to hunt for prey in their environment.
Behavior
These lizards are diurnal and are active during the day. They are known for their diverse mating strategies, with three different male morphs exhibiting different behaviors and reproductive strategies. Their behaviors include territorial displays and interactions during the breeding season.
Reproduction
Breeding typically occurs in the spring and summer. Female Common Side-blotched Lizards lay clutches of eggs in shallow nests in the soil. The eggs hatch, and the young lizards emerge, resembling miniature adults.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Common Side-blotched Lizards include birds, snakes, and other reptiles. Their survival techniques involve quick movements, camouflage, and the ability to escape into crevices or under rocks. Mating strategies, such as different male morphs, contribute to reproductive success.
Photo by Patrick Alexander, Wikimedia Commons

Elgaria multicarinata
Physical Characteristics
The Southern Alligator Lizard is a medium-sized lizard with a distinctive appearance. It has a slender body, keeled scales, and a long tail. The dorsal surface often displays a series of dark stripes or bands, providing effective camouflage in its habitat.
Habitat
Southern Alligator Lizards inhabit a variety of environments, including woodlands, chaparral, and coastal areas. They are commonly found in areas with ample ground cover, rocks, and vegetation, where they can forage for food and find shelter.
Diet
As carnivores, Southern Alligator Lizards feed on a diet consisting of insects, spiders, and other small invertebrates. They use their keen sense of smell and sight to locate prey and are known for their efficient hunting skills.
Behavior
These lizards are diurnal and are often seen basking in the sun to regulate their body temperature. They are agile climbers and may seek refuge in trees or under rocks. When threatened, Southern Alligator Lizards may display defensive behaviors, including biting.
Reproduction
Breeding typically occurs in the spring. Female Southern Alligator Lizards lay eggs in hidden locations, such as under rocks or logs. The eggs hatch, and the young lizards emerge. Reproduction is influenced by environmental factors and the availability of suitable habitats.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Southern Alligator Lizards include birds, snakes, and mammals. They use camouflage, swift movements, and defensive behaviors, such as biting, to deter or escape from potential threats. Additionally, they may shed their tails as a distraction.
Photo by Connor Long, Wikimedia Commons

Plestiodon skiltonianus
Physical Characteristics
The Western Skink is a medium-sized lizard with a sleek and elongated body, smooth scales, and a distinctively long tail. Juveniles often have bright blue tails, while adults typically have a brown or bronze coloration. They have a streamlined appearance and short legs.
Habitat
Western Skinks inhabit a range of environments, including grasslands, chaparral, and woodland areas. They are often found in rocky or sandy habitats where they can seek refuge in crevices or burrows.
Diet
As carnivores, Western Skinks primarily feed on a diet of insects, spiders, and other small invertebrates. They use their keen vision and quick movements to hunt for prey, and their slender bodies allow them to navigate through narrow spaces.
Behavior
Western Skinks are diurnal and are active during the day. They are agile climbers and may use rocks, trees, or other surfaces for basking and foraging. These skinks are known for their secretive behavior and may retreat into hiding when threatened.
Reproduction
Breeding typically occurs in the spring and early summer. Female Western Skinks lay clutches of eggs in underground nests. The eggs hatch, and the young skinks emerge, resembling miniature versions of the adults. They grow rapidly as they feed on small invertebrates.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Western Skinks include birds, snakes, and larger mammals. Their survival techniques include swift movements, the ability to escape into crevices or burrows, and camouflage. Juveniles may exhibit tail autonomy, shedding their tails to escape from predators.
Photo by Tania Parker

Sceloporus occidentalis
Physical Characteristics
The Western Fence Lizard is a medium-sized lizard with a flattened body, rough scales, and a long tail. It has a prominent collar of scales around its neck. The coloration varies, but it often includes shades of brown or gray with dorsal stripes. Males may have bright blue patches on their ventral sides.
Habitat
This lizard species is found in a variety of habitats, including grasslands, chaparral, woodlands, and rocky areas. They are commonly seen basking on rocks, trees, or fences to absorb sunlight for thermoregulation.
Diet
Western Fence Lizards are insectivores, primarily feeding on small invertebrates such as insects and spiders. They are active hunters and use their agility and quick movements to capture prey.
Behavior
These lizards are diurnal and are often seen basking in the sun. They are agile climbers and can be found on various surfaces, including trees and fences. Males engage in territorial behaviors, including push-up displays and head-bobbing, especially during the breeding season.
Reproduction
Breeding typically occurs in the spring and early summer. Female Western Fence Lizards lay clutches of eggs in sandy or loose soil. The eggs hatch, and the young lizards emerge. Reproduction is influenced by environmental factors and availability of suitable nesting sites.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Western Fence Lizards include birds, snakes, and mammals. Their survival techniques include rapid movements, camouflage, and the ability to escape into crevices or climb surfaces. Males may exhibit territorial behaviors to deter potential threats.
References
Scientific studies, herpetological literature, and field observations contribute valuable information about the behavior, ecology, and conservation status of Western Fence Lizards. Researchers refer to these sources to understand the role of these lizards in ecosystems and their adaptations for survival.
Photo by OVLC

Aspidoscelis tigris
Physical Characteristics
The Western Whiptail is a medium-sized lizard with a long, slender body and a distinctive tail that is often longer than its body. It has smooth scales and is known for its fast and agile movements. The coloration varies but commonly includes shades of brown, tan, or gray with stripes or patterns.
Habitat
Western Whiptails are found in a variety of habitats, including deserts, grasslands, and rocky areas. They prefer open environments where they can bask in the sun and forage for food. These lizards are often observed in sandy or rocky substrates.
Diet
As carnivores, Western Whiptails feed on a diet of insects, spiders, and other small invertebrates. They use their speed and agility to chase down prey, and their slender bodies allow them to navigate through various terrains.
Behavior
Western Whiptails are diurnal and are active during the day. They are skilled runners and can move rapidly to capture prey or escape from predators. These lizards are often seen basking in the sun to regulate their body temperature.
Reproduction
Breeding typically occurs in the spring and early summer. Female Western Whiptails lay clutches of eggs in shallow nests. The eggs hatch, and the young lizards emerge. Reproduction is influenced by environmental factors and the availability of suitable nesting sites.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Western Whiptails include birds, snakes, and mammals. Their survival techniques include rapid movements, the ability to escape into crevices or burrows, and camouflage. Like other lizards, they may shed their tails as a distraction or means of escape.
Photo by Connor Long, Wikimedia Commons

Lampropeltis californiae
Physical Characteristics
The California Kingsnake is a medium-sized snake with a slender and elongated body. It typically has smooth scales and a glossy appearance. The coloration is variable, but it often features contrasting bands of black or brown and cream or white, giving it a striking and attractive pattern.
Habitat
California Kingsnakes inhabit a range of environments, including grasslands, woodlands, chaparral, and suburban areas. They are adaptable and can be found in diverse habitats. These snakes are known for their climbing ability and may be observed in trees or shrubs.
Diet
Kingsnakes are constrictors and feed on a varied diet, including rodents, birds, and other small vertebrates. They are skilled hunters and use constriction to subdue and consume their prey. California Kingsnakes play a role in controlling rodent populations.
Behavior
California Kingsnakes are primarily nocturnal but can also be active during the day. They are secretive and may take refuge in underground burrows or beneath rocks. These snakes are known for their calm temperament and are often kept as pets due to their ease of care.
Reproduction
Breeding typically occurs in the spring. Female California Kingsnakes lay clutches of eggs in concealed locations, such as rotting logs or burrows. The eggs hatch, and the young snakes emerge. Reproduction is influenced by environmental factors and temperature.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of California Kingsnakes include birds of prey, larger snakes, and some mammals. Their survival techniques include mimicry, as they often resemble venomous coral snakes, deterring potential predators. When threatened, they may vibrate their tails, producing a sound similar to a rattlesnake.
Photo by Calibas, Wikimedia Commons

Hypsiglena ochrorhynchus
Physical Characteristics
The Night Snake is a small to medium-sized serpent with a slender body, featuring a spotted pattern across its scales. Its coloration varies and commonly includes shades of brown, gray, or olive.
Habitat
Night Snakes inhabit a range of environments, from deserts and grasslands to woodlands and rocky areas. They are well-adapted to arid landscapes and are often found in locations with loose soil or sand. These snakes are primarily nocturnal, being more active during the night.
Diet
Nocturnal hunters, Night Snakes feed on small vertebrates such as lizards, frogs, and occasionally small mammals. Using their constricting abilities, they subdue and consume their prey. Their spotted appearance contributes to effective camouflage during nighttime foraging.
Behavior
Displaying secretive behavior, Night Snakes often hide under rocks, in burrows, or other concealed spots during the day. Their spotted pattern helps them blend into their surroundings. When threatened, they may adopt defensive postures without the presence of a prominent stripe.
Reproduction
Breeding typically occurs in the spring, with females laying eggs in hidden locations like under rocks or in soil. The eggs hatch, giving rise to young Night Snakes. The reproductive process is influenced by environmental factors and temperature.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Night Snakes face predators such as birds of prey, larger snakes, and mammals. Their survival tactics involve camouflage through their spotted pattern, nocturnal habits, and defensive behaviors. In response to threats, they may exhibit defensive postures or release musk as a deterrent.
Photo by Nathan Wickstrum

Lampropeltis zonata
Physical Characteristics
The California Mountain Kingsnake is a medium-sized snake with a slender and elongated body. It is characterized by vibrant and distinctive coloration, featuring bold bands of red, black, and white or yellow. The bands run across the length of the body, creating a striking and attractive pattern.
Habitat
This kingsnake species is found in various habitats, including mountainous regions, woodlands, chaparral, and grasslands. They may be encountered in diverse elevations, and their habitat preferences include rocky areas and slopes.
Diet
California Mountain Kingsnakes are constrictors and feed on a diet that includes small vertebrates such as rodents, lizards, and birds. They are skilled hunters and use constriction to subdue and consume their prey.
Behavior
These snakes are primarily nocturnal but may also be active during the day. They are secretive and may take refuge in burrows, rock crevices, or beneath vegetation. California Mountain Kingsnakes are known for their calm temperament and may exhibit defensive behaviors when threatened.
Reproduction
Breeding typically occurs in the spring. Female California Mountain Kingsnakes lay clutches of eggs in concealed locations, such as under rocks or in burrows. The eggs hatch, and the young snakes emerge. Reproduction is influenced by environmental factors and temperature.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of California Mountain Kingsnakes include birds of prey, larger snakes, and some mammals. Their survival techniques include mimicry, resembling venomous coral snakes, which can deter potential predators. When threatened, they may vibrate their tails, producing a sound similar to a rattlesnake.
Photo by Rachel Whitt, Wikimedia Commons

Asticophis flagellum piceus
Physical Characteristics
The Red Coachwhip is a slender and agile snake with a long, whip-like body. It has smooth scales and a distinctive coloration, featuring a reddish-brown to orange hue along its entire length. The tail is often darker, resembling a "handle" of the whip.
Habitat
This snake species is found in a variety of habitats, including grasslands, scrublands, and open woodlands. It prefers areas with ample sunlight, as it is diurnal and relies on warmth for activity. Red Coachwhips are known for their exceptional speed and agility.
Diet
Red Coachwhips are skilled hunters, preying on a variety of small animals, including lizards, rodents, and birds. Their name "Coachwhip" is derived from their behavior of swiftly striking at prey, resembling the crack of a whip.
Behavior
Displaying diurnal habits, Red Coachwhips are most active during the day. They are fast and agile climbers, utilizing their slender bodies to navigate through vegetation and open spaces. When threatened, they may raise their heads and engage in defensive postures.
Reproduction
Breeding typically occurs in the spring and early summer. Female Red Coachwhips lay eggs in concealed locations, and the hatchlings emerge after an incubation period. Reproduction is influenced by environmental factors and the availability of suitable nesting sites.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Red Coachwhips include birds of prey, larger snakes, and mammals. Their survival techniques include speed, agility, and a defensive demeanor. When confronted, they may engage in rapid movements, hissing, and striking to deter potential threats.
Photo by Nathan Wickstrum

Thamnophis hammondii
Physical Characteristics
Hammond's Garter Snake is a medium-sized snake with a slender body. It typically has a brown or olive background color with two distinct yellow or orange stripes running along the length of its body. The stripes are located on the sides, and the snake often has a prominent stripe along its back.
Habitat
This garter snake species is found in a variety of habitats, including grasslands, meadows, wetlands, and near water sources such as ponds or streams. They are adaptable to both terrestrial and aquatic environments.
Diet
Two-striped Garter Snakes are carnivores, feeding on a diet consisting primarily of amphibians, small fish, invertebrates, and occasionally small mammals. They are known for their ability to eat a variety of prey items.
Behavior
These snakes are often active during the day and are skilled swimmers. They are commonly found near water sources and may bask in the sun to regulate their body temperature. Two-striped Garter Snakes are generally docile and may release a musky odor as a defense mechanism when handled.
Reproduction
Breeding typically occurs in the spring. Female Two-striped Garter Snakes give birth to live young rather than laying eggs. The number of offspring can vary, and the reproductive success is influenced by environmental factors.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Two-striped Garter Snakes include birds, larger snakes, and mammals. Their survival techniques include camouflage, swift movements, and the ability to release a foul-smelling musk when threatened. They may also engage in bluffing behaviors to deter predators.
Photo by Connor Long, Wikimedia Commons

Pituophis catenifer catenifer
Physical Characteristics
The Pacific Gopher Snake is a large, non-venomous snake with a robust body. It typically has a background color that ranges from light brown to yellow, with dark brown or black blotches along its back and sides. The head is often distinctly marked with dark patterns.
Habitat
This gopher snake subspecies is found in a variety of habitats, including grasslands, woodlands, scrublands, and coastal areas. It adapts well to different environments and is often observed in areas with sandy or loose soil.
Diet
Pacific Gopher Snakes are constrictors and primarily feed on a diet consisting of small mammals, including rodents and ground-dwelling birds. They are skilled burrowers and may enter the burrows of their prey.
Behavior
These snakes are primarily diurnal and are often active during the day. Pacific Gopher Snakes are known for their defensive behaviors, which may include hissing, coiling, and vibrating their tails to mimic a rattlesnake when threatened.
Reproduction
Breeding typically occurs in the spring. Female Pacific Gopher Snakes lay clutches of eggs in concealed locations, such as under rocks or in burrows. The eggs hatch, and the young snakes emerge. Reproduction is influenced by environmental factors and temperature.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Pacific Gopher Snakes include birds of prey, larger snakes, and mammals. Their survival techniques include mimicry (vibrating their tails like a rattlesnake), hissing, and adopting defensive postures. They may also release musk as a deterrent when handled.
Photo by Nathan Wickstrum

Diadophis punctatus
Physical Characteristics
The Ring-necked Snake is a small and slender snake with a distinctive coloration. Its dorsal surface typically has a dark color, often black or bluish-black, with a bright, contrasting yellow or orange ring around its neck. The underside is usually a lighter color.
Habitat
This snake species is found in a variety of habitats, including woodlands, grasslands, and moist areas near water sources. They may also be found in gardens and suburban areas. Ring-necked Snakes are often associated with hiding under cover objects like rocks and logs.
Diet
Ring-necked Snakes primarily feed on small prey, including earthworms, insects, and salamanders. They are known for their subduing behavior, where they often flip their prey to consume it headfirst.
Behavior
Ring-necked Snakes are nocturnal, meaning they are most active during the night. They are secretive and may hide under cover during the day. When threatened, they may display defensive behaviors, including coiling and exposing their brightly colored ventral surface.
Reproduction
Breeding typically occurs in the spring. Female Ring-necked Snakes lay small clutches of eggs in concealed locations, such as under rocks or in leaf litter. The eggs hatch, and the young snakes emerge. Reproduction is influenced by environmental factors.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Ring-necked Snakes include birds, larger snakes, and mammals. Their survival techniques include camouflage, defensive behaviors, and the ability to secrete a mild venom from their saliva, although it is not harmful to humans.
Photo by Don F Becker, Wikimedia Commons

Crotalus oreganus helleri
Geographic Distribution
Southern Santa Barbara County to northwestern Baja California, Mexico and Santa Catalina Islands.
Habitat
These rattlesnakes live in a variety of areas including grasslands, mountain forests, coastal dunes, rocky deserts and hillsides, and agricultural fields. In the northern end of their range they spend the winter hibernating in rock crevices and ledges. Many individuals (sometimes hundreds) will gather together in “snake dens” to over-winter.
Physical Characteristics
The thick body of Southern Pacific rattlesnakes ends in a short stubby tail. The rattles at the end of the tail are made up of a series of loosely jointed, dry, hollow segments of skin. Narrow ridged (keeled) scales cover the entire body. The large triangular head widens at the base. Fangs are contained in the front of the mouth. The neck is thin. Heat sensing pits are located on each side of the head. The pupils of the eyes are elliptical. The tail of young juveniles ends in a soft prebutton (an extra large scale) instead of a rattle. When the snakes shed their skin for the first time at one to two weeks after birth, another scale, the button, emerges. The button is the first segment of a rattlesnake’s rattle.
Most of these rattlesnakes blend into their surroundings due to their coloration. Although usually brown to olive-brown, they may be gray or a greenish tint. A thin brown, grey, or black stripe extends from the corner of each eye to the mouth, covers their eyes. Large, dark-rimmed spots of brown, olive, tan, grey, or black cover the back. The spots narrow into strips toward the tail. Very young snakes in this species usually have a bright yellow-green tail. Southern Pacific rattlesnakes found on Santa Catalina Island are usually almost completely black, lacking patterns.
Size
Adults are usually 75 to 100 cm (30 to 44 in) long. Some individuals grow to be over 135 cm (54 in) in length.
Diet
Rattlesnakes eat only when they are hungry. If their last meal was large, adults can go two weeks between meals. Juveniles usually eat once a week. Young snakes feed mostly on small lizards, while adults usually eat birds, lizards, snakes, frogs, insects, and small mammals, including mice, rats, rabbits, hares, and ground squirrels. (Adult California Ground Squirrels are immune to rattlesnake venom and will intensely confront any snake they feel to be a threat.) Rattlesnakes usually are nocturnal hunters. One way that they track passing prey in the dark is by flicking their forked tongue in and out to pick up of ground odors that come from the potential meal. The smell is transmitted to organs in the roof of the mouth that connect to the brain. These snakes also catch a meal by hiding near their prey’s territory and ambushing it. Usually, one bite is enough to kill the victim before it can run or fly away.
See the Adaptation section for another way that rattlesnakes find and track prey.

Reproduction
Rattlesnakes have complex breeding behaviors. In the spring a female ready to mate releases chemicals called pheromones. Male rattlesnakes smell the pheromones and pursue the female. If two males compete for the same female, they may perform a “Combat Dance”. In this display the two males coil around each other and push up to a third of their bodies over the ground. Since the snakes have no limbs to maintain their balance, both snakes promptly topple over. This encounter can be repeated for over 30 minutes. Eventually, one snake, usually the smaller of the two, retreats. The other snake continues to look for the female. Once he finds her, he courts her by touching her with his tongue and rubbing her back with his chin.
Fertilization is internal. Unlike many snakes, most rattlesnakes are ovoviviparous. About 90 days after mating, 4-12 live, well-developed young (7 to 10 in) long are born. They are dangerous from birth as a result of being born with short fangs and the ability to inject venom. They usually stay in the area where they were born for about two weeks which is when their first molt commonly occurs and they begin forming their rattle.
Behavior
Since they are cold-blooded, rattlesnakes are only as warm or as cold as their environment. To maintain an ideal body temperature, rattlesnakes move into sunlight or shade throughout the day. By hunting and moving mostly at night, they avoid very warm daytime temperatures. Night hunting when the ambient temperature is cooler also allows their heat sensitivity to be at peak performance. Not active during cooler periods in winter.
Adaptation
All rattlesnakes are pit vipers. They have a heat receptive pit or organ between each eye and nostril covered by a thin membrane that is sensitive to infrared radiation. This sixth sense “tells” these cold-blooded snakes when their body temperature is above or below the surrounding environment. The snakes seek sunlight or shade depending on what the organs sense. Their sixth sense also enables them to “see” the heat signature of a potential prey animal or the heat trail it left behind on the ground as it ran away after being bitten by the snake. Rattlers can track their dying victim over fairly rugged terrain and comparatively long distances.
The rattle at the end of the tail of southern Pacific rattlesnakes is made up of segments of keratin. When the snakes shed their skin, a new segment of the rattle is formed.
When alarmed, a rattlesnake shakes its tail back and forth. The movement rubs the rattle segments together producing a buzzing sound which serves as a warning. The rattle warns other animals the snake is venomous and can and will defend itself. It is thought that the rattle may also prevent trampling of the snake. For example, American bison are very in tune with the particular sound of a snake rattle and will avoid it.
Rattlesnake venom is another important adaptation. The two long, hollow, hinged fangs at the front of the mouth are normally folded into a groove in the roof of the snake’s mouth. When a rattlesnake strikes, the fangs unfold snapping forward at a 45o angle. Once the fangs make contact, glands attached to the venom duct (a pathway from the venom glands to the fangs) contract, injecting the toxin. These snakes are able to control the amount of venom injected, usually injecting 20-25% of their supply at a time.
Longevity
Disease, predation, and accidents kill many rattlesnakes. As a result, many snakes only live for a few years. In protected environments, however, rattlesnakes can live between 10 and 20 years.
Conservation
Southern Pacific rattlesnakes are not listed as threatened or endangered either by the IUCN Red List or California Fish and Game. Unfortunately, due to increasing road construction and human ignorance, rattlesnakes are on the decline in almost every environment where they are found. Without these stealthy predators as a natural control, it the rodent population may increase threatening human food supplies and other wild flora and fauna.
Other than humans, rattlesnakes are commonly preyed on by birds of prey, coyotes, and Roadrunners, (Geococcyx californianus).
Amazing Facts
Much of our current-day technological advances in night-vision and heat seeking ability are a result, in part of research done on pit vipers such as the southern Pacific rattlesnake.
Southern Pacific rattlesnakes’ venom changes as they age. While the snakes are young, their venom is less potent and does not digest prey very quickly. As the snakes age and favor faster, harder to digest prey, the venom becomes stronger, adapting to the need to hunt larger and different prey to satisfy their appetites.
Rattlesnakes in California
As springtime calls people and snakes alike to the outdoors, encounters with snakes become inevitable. California has a variety of snakes, most of which are benign. The exception is California’s only native venomous snake - the rattlesnake.
California rattlesnake species include the northern Pacific rattlesnake (in northern California), and the Western Diamondback, Sidewinder, Speckled rattlesnake, Red Diamond rattlesnake, Southern Pacific, Great Basin rattlesnake and the Mojave rattlesnake (all found in Southern California). Though rattlesnakes are dangerous if provoked, they also provide humans with a tremendous service they eat rodents, other reptiles, and insects, and are in turn eaten by other predators. In California where rattlesnakes are found from sea level to the inland prairies and desert areas and to the mountains at elevations of more than 10,000 feet, enjoying the outdoors means learning how to avoid contact with rattlesnakes.
Generally not aggressive, rattlesnakes strike when threatened or deliberately provoked, but given room they will retreat. Most snake bites occur when a rattlesnake is handled or accidentally touched by someone walking or climbing. The majority of snakebites occur on the hands, feet and ankles.
Rattlesnakes can cause serious injury to humans on rare occasions. The California Poison Control Center notes that rattlesnakes account for more than 800 bites each year with one to two deaths. Most bites occur between the months of April and October when snakes and humans are most active outdoors. About 25 percent of the bites are “dry,” meaning no venom was injected, but the bites still require medical treatment.
The potential of running into a rattlesnake should not deter anyone from venturing outdoors, but there are several precautions that can be taken to lessen the chance of being bitten when out in snake country - which is just about anywhere in California.
Dos and don’ts in snake country
First, know that rattlesnakes are not confined to rural areas. They have been found near urban areas, in river or lakeside parks, and at golf courses. Be aware that startled rattlesnakes may not rattle before striking defensively. There are several safety measures that can be taken to reduce the likelihood of startling a rattlesnake.
• Never go barefoot or wear sandals when walking through wild areas. Wear hiking boots.
• When hiking, stick to well-used trails and wear over-the-ankle boots and loose-fitting long pants. Avoid tall grass, weeds and heavy underbrush where snakes may hide during the day.
• Do not step or put your hands where you cannot see, and avoid wandering around in the dark. Step ON logs and rocks, never over them, and be especially careful when climbing rocks or gathering firewood. Check out stumps or logs before sitting down, and shake out sleeping bags before use.
• Never grab “sticks” or “branches” while swimming in lakes and rivers. Rattlesnakes can swim.
• Be careful when stepping over the doorstep as well. Snakes like to crawl along the edge of buildings where they are protected on one side.
• Never hike alone. Always have someone with you who can assist in an emergency.
• Do not handle a freshly killed snake, it can still inject venom.
• Teach children early to respect snakes and to leave them alone. Children are naturally curious and will pick up snakes.
Is it a rattlesnake?
Many a useful and non-threatening snake has suffered a quick death from a frantic human who has mistakenly identified a gopher snake, garter, racer or other as a rattlesnake. This usually happens when a snake assumes an instinctual defensive position used to bluff adversaries. A gopher snake has the added unfortunate trait of imitating a rattlesnake by flattening its head and body, vibrating its tail, hissing and actually striking if approached too closely.
A rattlesnake is a heavy-bodied, blunt-tailed snake with one or more rattles on the tail. It has a triangular-shaped head, much broader at the back than at the front, and a distinct “neck” region. The rattlesnake also has openings between the nostrils and eyes, which is a heat-sensing pit. The eyes are hooded with elliptical pupils. Additional identifying characteristics include a series of dark and light bands near the tail, just before the rattles which are different from the markings on the rest of the body. Also note that rattles may not always be present, as they are often lost through breakage and are not always developed on the young.
Keeping snakes out of the yard
The best protection against rattlesnakes in the yard is a “rattlesnake proof” fence. It can be expensive and requires maintenance, however. The fence should either be solid or with mesh no larger than one-quarter inch. It should be at least three feet high with the bottom buried a few inches in the ground. Slanting your snake fence outward about a 30-degree angle will help. Vegetation should be kept away from the fence since the snake could crawl to the top of an adjacent tree or shrub. Discourage snakes by removing piles of boards or rocks around the home. Use caution when removing those piles - there may already be a snake there. Encouraging and protecting natural competitors like gopher snakes, kingsnakes and racers will reduce the rattlesnake population in the immediate area. And, kingsnakes actually kill and eat rattlesnakes.
What to do in the event of a snake bite
Though uncommon, rattlesnake bites do occur, so have a plan in place for responding to any situation. Carry a portable phone, hike with a companion who can assist in an emergency, and make sure that family or friends know where you are going and when you will be checking in.
The first thing to do if bitten is to stay calm. Generally, the most serious effect of a rattlesnake bite to an adult is local tissue damage which needs to be treated. Children, because they are smaller, are in more danger if they are bitten. Get to a doctor as soon as possible, but stay calm. Frenetic, high-speed driving places the victim at greater risk of an accident and increased heart rate. If the doctor is more than 30 minutes away, keep the bite below the heart, and then try to get to the doctor as quickly as possible.
The California Poison Control Center advises:
• Stay calm
• Wash the bite area gently with soap and water
• Remove watches, rings, etc, which may constrict swelling
• Immobilize the affected area
• Transport safely to the nearest medical facility
For more first aid information please visit California Poison Control.
References:
Aquarium of the Pacific
(aquariumofpacific.org/onlinelearningcenter/southernpacificrattlesnake)
California Department of Fish & Wildlife
(wildlife.ca.gov/News/Snake)
California Herps
(californiaherps.com)

Geographic Distribution
Southern Santa Barbara County to northwestern Baja California, Mexico and Santa Catalina Islands.
Habitat
These rattlesnakes live in a variety of areas including grasslands, mountain forests, coastal dunes, rocky deserts and hillsides, and agricultural fields. In the northern end of their range they spend the winter hibernating in rock crevices and ledges. Many individuals (sometimes hundreds) will gather together in “snake dens” to over-winter.
Physical Characteristics
The thick body of Southern Pacific rattlesnakes ends in a short stubby tail. The rattles at the end of the tail are made up of a series of loosely jointed, dry, hollow segments of skin. Narrow ridged (keeled) scales cover the entire body. The large triangular head widens at the base. Fangs are contained in the front of the mouth. The neck is thin. Heat sensing pits are located on each side of the head. The pupils of the eyes are elliptical. The tail of young juveniles ends in a soft prebutton (an extra large scale) instead of a rattle. When the snakes shed their skin for the first time at one to two weeks after birth, another scale, the button, emerges. The button is the first segment of a rattlesnake’s rattle.
Most of these rattlesnakes blend into their surroundings due to their coloration. Although usually brown to olive-brown, they may be gray or a greenish tint. A thin brown, grey, or black stripe extends from the corner of each eye to the mouth, covers their eyes. Large, dark-rimmed spots of brown, olive, tan, grey, or black cover the back. The spots narrow into strips toward the tail. Very young snakes in this species usually have a bright yellow-green tail. Southern Pacific rattlesnakes found on Santa Catalina Island are usually almost completely black, lacking patterns.
Size
Adults are usually 75 to 100 cm (30 to 44 in) long. Some individuals grow to be over 135 cm (54 in) in length.
Diet
Rattlesnakes eat only when they are hungry. If their last meal was large, adults can go two weeks between meals. Juveniles usually eat once a week. Young snakes feed mostly on small lizards, while adults usually eat birds, lizards, snakes, frogs, insects, and small mammals, including mice, rats, rabbits, hares, and ground squirrels. (Adult California Ground Squirrels are immune to rattlesnake venom and will intensely confront any snake they feel to be a threat.) Rattlesnakes usually are nocturnal hunters. One way that they track passing prey in the dark is by flicking their forked tongue in and out to pick up of ground odors that come from the potential meal. The smell is transmitted to organs in the roof of the mouth that connect to the brain. These snakes also catch a meal by hiding near their prey’s territory and ambushing it. Usually, one bite is enough to kill the victim before it can run or fly away.
See the Adaptation section for another way that rattlesnakes find and track prey.

Reproduction
Rattlesnakes have complex breeding behaviors. In the spring a female ready to mate releases chemicals called pheromones. Male rattlesnakes smell the pheromones and pursue the female. If two males compete for the same female, they may perform a “Combat Dance”. In this display the two males coil around each other and push up to a third of their bodies over the ground. Since the snakes have no limbs to maintain their balance, both snakes promptly topple over. This encounter can be repeated for over 30 minutes. Eventually, one snake, usually the smaller of the two, retreats. The other snake continues to look for the female. Once he finds her, he courts her by touching her with his tongue and rubbing her back with his chin.
Fertilization is internal. Unlike many snakes, most rattlesnakes are ovoviviparous. About 90 days after mating, 4-12 live, well-developed young (7 to 10 in) long are born. They are dangerous from birth as a result of being born with short fangs and the ability to inject venom. They usually stay in the area where they were born for about two weeks which is when their first molt commonly occurs and they begin forming their rattle.
Behavior
Since they are cold-blooded, rattlesnakes are only as warm or as cold as their environment. To maintain an ideal body temperature, rattlesnakes move into sunlight or shade throughout the day. By hunting and moving mostly at night, they avoid very warm daytime temperatures. Night hunting when the ambient temperature is cooler also allows their heat sensitivity to be at peak performance. Not active during cooler periods in winter.
Adaptation
All rattlesnakes are pit vipers. They have a heat receptive pit or organ between each eye and nostril covered by a thin membrane that is sensitive to infrared radiation. This sixth sense “tells” these cold-blooded snakes when their body temperature is above or below the surrounding environment. The snakes seek sunlight or shade depending on what the organs sense. Their sixth sense also enables them to “see” the heat signature of a potential prey animal or the heat trail it left behind on the ground as it ran away after being bitten by the snake. Rattlers can track their dying victim over fairly rugged terrain and comparatively long distances.
The rattle at the end of the tail of southern Pacific rattlesnakes is made up of segments of keratin. When the snakes shed their skin, a new segment of the rattle is formed.
When alarmed, a rattlesnake shakes its tail back and forth. The movement rubs the rattle segments together producing a buzzing sound which serves as a warning. The rattle warns other animals the snake is venomous and can and will defend itself. It is thought that the rattle may also prevent trampling of the snake. For example, American bison are very in tune with the particular sound of a snake rattle and will avoid it.
Rattlesnake venom is another important adaptation. The two long, hollow, hinged fangs at the front of the mouth are normally folded into a groove in the roof of the snake’s mouth. When a rattlesnake strikes, the fangs unfold snapping forward at a 45o angle. Once the fangs make contact, glands attached to the venom duct (a pathway from the venom glands to the fangs) contract, injecting the toxin. These snakes are able to control the amount of venom injected, usually injecting 20-25% of their supply at a time.
Longevity
Disease, predation, and accidents kill many rattlesnakes. As a result, many snakes only live for a few years. In protected environments, however, rattlesnakes can live between 10 and 20 years.
Conservation
Southern Pacific rattlesnakes are not listed as threatened or endangered either by the IUCN Red List or California Fish and Game. Unfortunately, due to increasing road construction and human ignorance, rattlesnakes are on the decline in almost every environment where they are found. Without these stealthy predators as a natural control, it the rodent population may increase threatening human food supplies and other wild flora and fauna.
Other than humans, rattlesnakes are commonly preyed on by birds of prey, coyotes, and Roadrunners, (Geococcyx californianus).
Amazing Facts
Much of our current-day technological advances in night-vision and heat seeking ability are a result, in part of research done on pit vipers such as the southern Pacific rattlesnake.
Southern Pacific rattlesnakes’ venom changes as they age. While the snakes are young, their venom is less potent and does not digest prey very quickly. As the snakes age and favor faster, harder to digest prey, the venom becomes stronger, adapting to the need to hunt larger and different prey to satisfy their appetites.
Rattlesnakes in California
As springtime calls people and snakes alike to the outdoors, encounters with snakes become inevitable. California has a variety of snakes, most of which are benign. The exception is California’s only native venomous snake - the rattlesnake.
California rattlesnake species include the northern Pacific rattlesnake (in northern California), and the Western Diamondback, Sidewinder, Speckled rattlesnake, Red Diamond rattlesnake, Southern Pacific, Great Basin rattlesnake and the Mojave rattlesnake (all found in Southern California). Though rattlesnakes are dangerous if provoked, they also provide humans with a tremendous service they eat rodents, other reptiles, and insects, and are in turn eaten by other predators. In California where rattlesnakes are found from sea level to the inland prairies and desert areas and to the mountains at elevations of more than 10,000 feet, enjoying the outdoors means learning how to avoid contact with rattlesnakes.
Generally not aggressive, rattlesnakes strike when threatened or deliberately provoked, but given room they will retreat. Most snake bites occur when a rattlesnake is handled or accidentally touched by someone walking or climbing. The majority of snakebites occur on the hands, feet and ankles.
Rattlesnakes can cause serious injury to humans on rare occasions. The California Poison Control Center notes that rattlesnakes account for more than 800 bites each year with one to two deaths. Most bites occur between the months of April and October when snakes and humans are most active outdoors. About 25 percent of the bites are “dry,” meaning no venom was injected, but the bites still require medical treatment.
The potential of running into a rattlesnake should not deter anyone from venturing outdoors, but there are several precautions that can be taken to lessen the chance of being bitten when out in snake country - which is just about anywhere in California.
Dos and don’ts in snake country
First, know that rattlesnakes are not confined to rural areas. They have been found near urban areas, in river or lakeside parks, and at golf courses. Be aware that startled rattlesnakes may not rattle before striking defensively. There are several safety measures that can be taken to reduce the likelihood of startling a rattlesnake.
• Never go barefoot or wear sandals when walking through wild areas. Wear hiking boots.
• When hiking, stick to well-used trails and wear over-the-ankle boots and loose-fitting long pants. Avoid tall grass, weeds and heavy underbrush where snakes may hide during the day.
• Do not step or put your hands where you cannot see, and avoid wandering around in the dark. Step ON logs and rocks, never over them, and be especially careful when climbing rocks or gathering firewood. Check out stumps or logs before sitting down, and shake out sleeping bags before use.
• Never grab “sticks” or “branches” while swimming in lakes and rivers. Rattlesnakes can swim.
• Be careful when stepping over the doorstep as well. Snakes like to crawl along the edge of buildings where they are protected on one side.
• Never hike alone. Always have someone with you who can assist in an emergency.
• Do not handle a freshly killed snake, it can still inject venom.
• Teach children early to respect snakes and to leave them alone. Children are naturally curious and will pick up snakes.
Is it a rattlesnake?
Many a useful and non-threatening snake has suffered a quick death from a frantic human who has mistakenly identified a gopher snake, garter, racer or other as a rattlesnake. This usually happens when a snake assumes an instinctual defensive position used to bluff adversaries. A gopher snake has the added unfortunate trait of imitating a rattlesnake by flattening its head and body, vibrating its tail, hissing and actually striking if approached too closely.
A rattlesnake is a heavy-bodied, blunt-tailed snake with one or more rattles on the tail. It has a triangular-shaped head, much broader at the back than at the front, and a distinct “neck” region. The rattlesnake also has openings between the nostrils and eyes, which is a heat-sensing pit. The eyes are hooded with elliptical pupils. Additional identifying characteristics include a series of dark and light bands near the tail, just before the rattles which are different from the markings on the rest of the body. Also note that rattles may not always be present, as they are often lost through breakage and are not always developed on the young.
Keeping snakes out of the yard
The best protection against rattlesnakes in the yard is a “rattlesnake proof” fence. It can be expensive and requires maintenance, however. The fence should either be solid or with mesh no larger than one-quarter inch. It should be at least three feet high with the bottom buried a few inches in the ground. Slanting your snake fence outward about a 30-degree angle will help. Vegetation should be kept away from the fence since the snake could crawl to the top of an adjacent tree or shrub. Discourage snakes by removing piles of boards or rocks around the home. Use caution when removing those piles - there may already be a snake there. Encouraging and protecting natural competitors like gopher snakes, kingsnakes and racers will reduce the rattlesnake population in the immediate area. And, kingsnakes actually kill and eat rattlesnakes.
What to do in the event of a snake bite
Though uncommon, rattlesnake bites do occur, so have a plan in place for responding to any situation. Carry a portable phone, hike with a companion who can assist in an emergency, and make sure that family or friends know where you are going and when you will be checking in.
The first thing to do if bitten is to stay calm. Generally, the most serious effect of a rattlesnake bite to an adult is local tissue damage which needs to be treated. Children, because they are smaller, are in more danger if they are bitten. Get to a doctor as soon as possible, but stay calm. Frenetic, high-speed driving places the victim at greater risk of an accident and increased heart rate. If the doctor is more than 30 minutes away, keep the bite below the heart, and then try to get to the doctor as quickly as possible.
The California Poison Control Center advises:
• Stay calm
• Wash the bite area gently with soap and water
• Remove watches, rings, etc, which may constrict swelling
• Immobilize the affected area
• Transport safely to the nearest medical facility
For more first aid information please visit California Poison Control.
References:
Aquarium of the Pacific
(aquariumofpacific.org/onlinelearningcenter/southernpacificrattlesnake)
California Department of Fish & Wildlife
(wildlife.ca.gov/News/Snake)
California Herps
(californiaherps.com)
Photo by Tania Parker

General Description
Dragonflies (suborder Anisoptera) are heavy-bodied, strong-flying insects that hold their wings horizontally both in flight and at rest. By contrast, damselflies (suborder Zygoptera) have slender bodies and fly more weakly; most species fold their wings over the abdomen when stationary, and the eyes are well separated on the sides of the head.
An adult dragonfly has three distinct segments, the head, thorax, and abdomen as in all insects. It has a chitinous exoskeleton of hard plates held together with flexible membranes. The head is large with very short antennae. It is dominated by the two compound eyes, which cover most of its surface. Also, they have three simple eyes or ocelli. The mouthparts are adapted for biting with a toothed jaw; the flap-like labrum, at the front of the mouth, can be shot rapidly forward to catch prey.
The thorax consists of three segments as in all insects. The prothorax is small and is flattened dorsally into a shield-like disc which has two transverse ridges. The mesothorax and metathorax are fused into a rigid, box-like structure with internal bracing, and provides a robust attachment for the powerful wing muscles inside it. The thorax bears two pairs of wings and three pairs of legs. The wings are long, veined, and membranous, narrower at the tip and wider at the base. The hindwings are broader than the forewings and the venation is different at the base. In most large species of dragonflies, the wings of females are shorter and broader than those of males. The legs are rarely used for walking, but are used to catch and hold prey, for perching, and for climbing on plants. The abdomen is long and slender and consists of 10 segments and a terminal appendage-bearing segment.
Dragonfly nymphs vary in form with species and are loosely classed into claspers, sprawlers, hiders, and burrowers. The first instar is known as a prolarva, a relatively inactive stage from which it quickly moults into the more active nymphal form. The general body plan is similar to that of an adult, but the nymph lacks wings and reproductive organs. The lower jaw has a huge, extensible labium, armed with hooks and spines, which is used for catching prey. This labium is folded under the body at rest and struck out at great speed by hydraulic pressure created by the abdominal muscles. Whereas damselfly nymphs have three feathery external gills, dragonfly nymphs have internal gills, located around the fourth and fifth abdominal segments. Water is pumped in and out of the abdomen through an opening at the tip.
Color
Many adult dragonflies have brilliant iridescent or metallic colors produced by structural coloration, making them conspicuous in flight. Their overall coloration is often a combination of yellow, red, brown, and black pigments, with structural colors. Blues are typically created by microstructures in the cuticle that reflect blue light. Greens often combine a structural blue with a yellow pigment. Freshly emerged adults, known as tenerals, are often pale-colored and obtain their typical colors after a few days, some have their bodies covered with a pale blue, waxy powderiness called pruinosity; it wears off when scraped during mating, leaving darker areas
The wings of dragonflies are generally clear, apart from the dark veins and pterostigmata. In the chasers (Libellulidae), however, many genera have areas of color on the wings: for example, groundlings (Brachythemis) have brown bands on all four wings, while some scarlets (Crocothemis) and dropwings (Trithemis) have bright orange patches at the wing bases. Some aeshnids such as the brown hawker (Aeshna grandis) have translucent, pale yellow wings.
Dragonfly nymphs are usually a well-camouflaged blend of dull brown, green, and grey.
Habitat
Dragonflies as a group occupy a considerable variety of habitats, but many species, and some families, have their own specific environmental requirements. Some species prefer flowing waters, while others prefer standing water. For example, the Gomphidae (clubtails) live in running water, and the Libellulidae (skimmers) live in still water. Some species are found in temporary water pools and are capable of tolerating changes in water level, desiccation, and the resulting variations in temperature, but some genera such as Sympetrum (darters) have eggs and larvae that can resist drought and are stimulated to grow rapidly in warm, shallow pools, also often benefiting from the absence of predators there. Vegetation and its characteristics including submerged, floating, emergent, or waterside are also important. Adults may require emergent or waterside plants to use as perches; others may need specific submerged or floating plants on which to lay eggs. Requirements may be highly specific, as in Aeshna viridis (green hawker), which lives in swamps with the water-soldier, Stratiotes aloides. The chemistry of the water, including its trophic status (degree of enrichment with nutrients) and pH can also affect its use by dragonflies. Most species need moderate conditions, not too eutrophic, not too acid; a few species such as Sympetrum danae (black darter) and Libellula quadrimaculata (four-spotted chaser) prefer acidic waters such as peat bogs, while others such as Libellula fulva (scarce chaser) need slow-moving, eutrophic waters with reeds or similar waterside plants.
Diet
Adult dragonflies hunt on the wing using their exceptionally acute eyesight and strong, agile flight. They are almost exclusively carnivorous, eating a wide variety of insects ranging from small midges and mosquitoes to butterflies, moths, damselflies, and smaller dragonflies. A large prey item is subdued by being bitten on the head and is carried by the legs to a perch. Here, the wings are discarded and the prey usually ingested head first. A dragonfly may consume as much as a fifth of its body weight in prey per day.
The larvae are voracious predators, eating most living things that are smaller than they are. Their staple diet is mostly bloodworms and other insect larvae, but they also feed on tadpoles and small fish. A few species, especially those that live in temporary waters, are likely to leave water. Nymphs of Cordulegaster bidentata sometimes hunt small arthropods on the ground at night.
Behavior
Many dragonflies, particularly males, are territorial. Some defend a territory against others of their own species, some against other species of dragonfly and a few against insects in unrelated groups. A particular perch may give a dragonfly a good view over an insect-rich feeding ground, and the blue dasher (Pachydiplax longipennis) jostles other dragonflies to maintain the right to alight there.
Defending a breeding territory is fairly common among male dragonflies, especially among species that congregate around ponds in large numbers. The territory contains desirable features such as a sunlit stretch of shallow water, a special plant species, or a particular substrate necessary for egg-laying. The territory may be small or large, depending on its quality, the time of day, and the number of competitors, and may be held for a few minutes or several hours. Some dragonflies signal ownership with striking colors on the face, abdomen, legs, or wings. The common whitetail (Plathemis lydia) dashes towards an intruder holding its white abdomen aloft like a flag. Other dragonflies engage in aerial dogfights or high-speed chases. A female must mate with the territory holder before laying her eggs.
Breeding
Mating in dragonflies is a complex, precisely choreographed process. First, the male has to attract a female to his territory, continually driving off rival males. When he is ready to mate, he transfers a packet of sperm from his primary genital opening on segment 9, near the end of his abdomen, to his secondary genitalia on segments 2–3, near the base of his abdomen. The male then grasps the female by the head with the claspers at the end of his abdomen; the structure of the claspers varies between species, and may help to prevent interspecific mating. The pair flies in tandem with the male in front, typically perching on a twig or plant stem. The female then curls her abdomen downwards and forwards under her body to pick up the sperm from the male's secondary genitalia, while the male uses his "tail" claspers to grip the female behind the head: this distinctive posture is called the "heart" or "wheel"; the pair may also be described as being "in cop".
Egg-laying (ovipositing) involves not only the female darting over floating or waterside vegetation to deposit eggs on a suitable substrate, but also the male hovering above her or continuing to clasp her and flying in tandem. The male attempts to prevent rivals from removing his sperm and inserting their own, something made possible by delayed fertilization and driven by sexual selection. If successful, a rival male uses his penis to compress or scrape out the sperm inserted previously; this activity takes up much of the time that a copulating pair remains in the heart posture. Flying in tandem has the advantage that less effort is needed by the female for flight and more can be expended on egg-laying, and when the female submerges to deposit eggs, the male may help to pull her out of the water.
Egg-laying takes two different forms depending on the species. The female in some families has a sharp-edged ovipositor with which she slits open a stem or leaf of a plant on or near the water, so she can push her eggs inside. In other families such as clubtails (Gomphidae), cruisers (Macromiidae), emeralds (Corduliidae), and skimmers (Libellulidae), the female lays eggs by tapping the surface of the water repeatedly with her abdomen, by shaking the eggs out of her abdomen as she flies along, or by placing the eggs on vegetation. In a few species, the eggs are laid on emergent plants above the water, and development is delayed until these have withered and become immersed.
Life Cycle
Dragonflies are hemimetabolous insects; they do not have a pupal stage and undergo an incomplete metamorphosis with a series of nymphal stages from which the adult emerges. Eggs laid inside plant tissues are usually shaped like grains of rice, while other eggs are the size of a pinhead, ellipsoidal, or nearly spherical. A clutch may have as many as 1500 eggs, and they take about a week to hatch into aquatic nymphs or naiads which moult between six and 15 times (depending on species) as they grow. Most of a dragonfly's life is spent as a nymph, beneath the water's surface. The nymph extends its hinged labium (a toothed mouthpart similar to a lower mandible which is sometimes termed as a "mask" as it is normally folded and held before the face) which can extend forward and retract rapidly to capture prey such as mosquito larvae, tadpoles, and small fish. They breathe through gills in their rectum, and can rapidly propel themselves by suddenly expelling water through the anus. Some naiads, such as the later stages of Antipodophlebia asthenes, hunt on land.
The larval stage of dragonflies lasts up to five years in large species, and between two months and three years in smaller species. When the naiad is ready to metamorphose into an adult, it stops feeding and makes its way to the surface, generally at night. It remains stationary with its head out of the water, while its respiration system adapts to breathing air, then climbs up a reed or other emergent plant, and moults (ecdysis). Anchoring itself firmly in a vertical position with its claws, its skin begins to split at a weak spot behind the head. The adult dragonfly crawls out of its larval skin, the exuvia, arching backwards when all but the tip of its abdomen is free, to allow its exoskeleton to harden. Curling back upwards, it completes its emergence, swallowing air, which plumps out its body, and pumping haemolymph into its wings, which causes them to expand to their full extent.
Dragonflies in temperate areas can be categorized into two groups, an early group and a later one. In any one area, individuals of a particular "spring species" emerge within a few days of each other. The springtime darner (Basiaeschna janata), for example, is suddenly very common in the spring, but has disappeared a few weeks later and is not seen again until the following year. By contrast, a "summer species" emerges over a period of weeks or months, later in the year. They may be seen on the wing for several months, but this may represent a whole series of individuals, with new adults hatching out as earlier ones complete their short lifespans.
Flight
Dragonflies are powerful and agile fliers, capable of migrating across oceans, moving in any direction, and changing direction suddenly. In flight, the adult dragonfly can propel itself in six directions: upward, downward, forward, back, to left and to right. They have four different styles of flight: A number of flying modes are used that include counter-stroking, with forewings beating 180° out of phase with the hindwings, is used for hovering and slow flight. This style is efficient and generates a large amount of lift; phased-stroking, with the hindwings beating 90° ahead of the forewings, is used for fast flight. This style creates more thrust, but less lift than counter-stroking; synchronized-stroking, with forewings and hindwings beating together, is used when changing direction rapidly, as it maximizes thrust; and gliding, with the wings held out, is used in three situations: free gliding, for a few seconds in between bursts of powered flight; gliding in the updraft at the crest of a hill, effectively hovering by falling at the same speed as the updraft; and in certain dragonflies such as darters, when "in cop" with a male, the female sometimes simply glides while the male pulls the pair along by beating his wings.
In general, large dragonflies like the hawkers have a maximum speed of 22–34 mph (10–15 meters per second) with average cruising speed of about 10 mph (4.5 meters per second).
Temperature Control
The flight muscles need to be kept at a suitable temperature for the dragonfly to be able to fly. Being cold-blooded, they can raise their temperature by basking in the sun. Early in the morning, they may choose to perch in a vertical position with the wings outstretched, while in the middle of the day, a horizontal stance may be chosen. Another method of warming up used by some larger dragonflies is wing-whirring, a rapid vibration of the wings that causes heat to be generated in the flight muscles. The green darner (Anax junius) is known for its long-distance migrations, and often resorts to wing-whirring before dawn to enable it to make an early start.
Becoming too hot is another hazard, and a sunny or shady position for perching can be selected according to the ambient temperature. Some species have dark patches on the wings which can provide shade for the body, and a few use the obelisk posture to avoid overheating. This behavior involves doing a "handstand", perching with the body raised and the abdomen pointing towards the sun, thus minimizing the amount of solar radiation received. On a hot day, dragonflies sometimes adjust their body temperature by skimming over a water surface and briefly touching it, often three times in quick succession. This may also help to avoid desiccation.
Predators and Parasites
Although dragonflies are swift and agile fliers, some predators are fast enough to catch them. These include falcons such as the American kestrel, the merlin, and the hobby; nighthawk, swifts, flycatchers and swallows also take some adults; some species of wasps, too, prey on dragonflies, using them to provision their nests, laying an egg on each captured insect. In the water, various species of ducks and herons eat dragonfly larvae and they are also preyed on by newts, frogs, fish, and water spiders. Amur falcons, which migrate over the Indian Ocean at a period that coincides with the migration of the globe skimmer dragonfly, Pantala flavescens, may actually be feeding on them while on the wing.
Dragonflies are affected by three major groups of parasites: water mites, gregarine protozoa, and trematode flatworms (flukes). Water mites, Hydracarina, can kill smaller dragonfly larvae, and may also be seen on adults. Gregarines infect the gut and may cause blockage and secondary infection. Trematodes are parasites of vertebrates such as frogs, with complex lifecycles often involving a period as a stage called a cercaria in a secondary host, a snail. Dragonfly nymphs may swallow cercariae, or these may tunnel through a nymph's body wall; they then enter the gut and form a cyst or metacercaria, which remains in the nymph for the whole of its development. If the nymph is eaten by a frog, the amphibian becomes infected by the adult or fluke stage of the trematode.
Dragonflies and damselflies are confused very much as some believe that the damselflies are small dragonflies which grow later on to the bigger size but this is not true as after metamorphosis the dragonflies are fully grown. There are differences between the two insects. Damselflies hold their wings while at rest but the dragonflies keep their wings in a perpendicular direction while at rest. Hind wing of dragonfly is somewhat broader than the fore wing while in the damselflies both fore and hind wings are similar in shape and size. The eyes in damselflies are apart while in dragonflies the eyes touch each other.
14 Fun Facts about Dragonflies
Flying insects are usually annoying. Mosquitoes bite you, leaving itchy red welts. Bees and wasps sting. Flies are just disgusting. But there’s something magical about dragonflies.
1) Dragonflies were some of the first winged insects to evolve, some 300 million years ago. Modern dragonflies have wingspans of only two to five inches, but fossil dragonflies have been found with wingspans of up to two feet.
2) Some scientists theorize that high oxygen levels during the Paleozoic era allowed dragonflies to grow to monster size.
3) There are more than 5,000 known species of dragonflies, all of which (along with damselflies) belong to the order Odonata, which means “toothed one” in Greek and refers to the dragonfly’s serrated teeth.
4) In their larval stage, which can last up to two years, dragonflies are aquatic and eat just about anything—tadpoles, mosquitoes, fish, other insect larvae and even each other.
5) At the end of its larval stage, the dragonfly crawls out of the water, then its exoskeleton cracks open and releases the insect’s abdomen, which had been packed in like a telescope. Its four wings come out, and they dry and harden over the next several hours to days.
6) Dragonflies are expert fliers. They can fly straight up and down, hover like a helicopter and even mate mid-air. If they can’t fly, they’ll starve because they only eat prey they catch while flying.
7) Dragonflies catch their insect prey by grabbing it with their feet. They’re so efficient in their hunting that, in one Harvard University study, the dragonflies caught 90 to 95 percent of the prey released into their enclosure.
8) The flight of the dragonfly is so special that it has inspired engineers who dream of making robots that fly like dragonflies.
9) Some adult dragonflies live for only a few weeks while others live up to a year.
10) Nearly all of the dragonfly’s head is eye, so they have incredible vision that encompasses almost every angle except right behind them.
11) Dragonflies, which eat insects as adults, are a great control on the mosquito population. A single dragonfly can eat 30 to hundreds of mosquitoes per day.
12) Hundreds of dragonflies of different species will gather in swarms, either for feeding or migration.
13) Scientists have tracked migratory dragonflies by attaching tiny transmitters to wings with a combination of eyelash adhesive and superglue. They found that green darners from New Jersey traveled only every third day and an average of 7.5 miles per day (though one dragonfly traveled 100 miles in a single day).
14) A dragonfly called the globe skinner has the longest migration of any insect—11,000 miles back and forth across the Indian Ocean.ere are over 3,600 kinds of dragonflies on
References
dragonflywebsite.com
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragonfly
www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/14-fun-facts-about-dragonflies-96882693/
Photo by Nathan Wickstrum

Oncopeltus fasciatus
Physical Characteristics
The Large Milkweed Bug is characterized by its distinctive coloration. Adults typically have a black body with bright orange or red markings on the pronotum (the plate-like structure behind the head) and along the edges of the wings. The nymphs have a similar color pattern but may have wing pads instead of fully developed wings.
Habitat
These bugs are commonly found in a variety of habitats, including fields, meadows, and gardens. They are often associated with milkweed plants, as their name suggests, where they feed and lay eggs.
Diet
Large Milkweed Bugs primarily feed on the seeds of milkweed plants (Asclepias species). They use their piercing mouthparts to extract nutrients from the seeds. This feeding behavior is thought to be a form of seed predation.
Behavior
These bugs are known for their aggregation behavior, often forming large groups on milkweed plants. They are capable of producing a chemical defense from glands located on their thorax, which can deter predators.
Reproduction
The reproductive behavior of Large Milkweed Bugs involves laying eggs on milkweed plants. The eggs hatch into nymphs, which undergo several molts before reaching adulthood. The bugs often exhibit parental care, with adults guarding their eggs and nymphs.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Large Milkweed Bugs include birds, spiders, and other insects. Their bright coloration serves as a warning signal to potential predators about their chemical defense. When threatened, they may release a foul-smelling liquid as a deterrent.
Photo by Katja Schulz from Washington, D. C., USA, Wikimedia Commons

Pepsis mildei
Physical Characteristics
The Tarantula Hawk Wasp is notable for its impressive size and distinct coloration. It typically has a dark metallic blue or black body with vibrant orange wings. Adult females are larger than males, and they have long, slender antennae.
Habitat
These wasps are found in various habitats, including arid regions, deserts, and grasslands. They are often observed in areas where tarantulas, their preferred prey, are present.
Diet
The primary diet of Tarantula Hawk Wasps consists of nectar from flowers. However, they are especially known for their unique hunting behavior. Female wasps hunt and paralyze tarantulas, which serve as food for their larvae. The paralyzed tarantula is then buried in a nest, and a single egg is laid on it.
Behavior
Female Tarantula Hawk Wasps are known for their impressive hunting and reproductive strategy. They locate tarantulas, sting them to paralyze but not kill, and then drag the tarantula to a prepared nest. The female lays an egg on the tarantula, and upon hatching, the wasp larva feeds on the still-living spider. This process ensures a fresh food source for the developing larva.
Reproduction
After laying an egg on the paralyzed tarantula, the female seals the nest, and the larva consumes the tarantula as it grows. The larva eventually pupates, and a new generation of Tarantula Hawk Wasp emerges.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Adult Tarantula Hawk Wasps have few natural predators due to their potent stinging ability, which is considered one of the most painful insect stings. Potential predators are deterred by the wasp's vibrant coloration, indicating its ability to deliver a painful sting.
Photo by Dee Shea Himes, Wikimedia Commons

Dasymutilla aureola
Physical Characteristics
The Red Velvet Ant is known for its striking and vibrant coloration. Females are wingless and covered in dense, velvety orange or reddish-brown hair, while males have wings and a more wasp-like appearance. The bright coloration serves as a warning signal.
Habitat
These wasps are found in a variety of habitats, including grasslands, woodlands, and gardens. They are often encountered in sandy or well-drained soils.
Diet
Adult Red Velvet Ants primarily feed on nectar from flowers. However, their larvae are parasitoids. Female velvet ants seek out the nests of ground-nesting bees or wasps, lay their eggs on the bee or wasp larva, and the hatched velvet ant larva consumes the host larva.
Behavior
Female Red Velvet Ants are known for their painful sting, which is reputed to be one of the most painful insect stings. They are solitary wasps and do not form colonies. Males, with wings, are often seen flying in search of mates.
Reproduction
The reproductive behavior involves females parasitizing the nests of other bees or wasps. After locating a host nest, the female lays her eggs on the host larva, and the hatched velvet ant larva consumes the host.
Predators and Survival Techniques
The bright coloration of the Red Velvet Ant serves as aposematic coloration, warning potential predators of its ability to deliver a painful sting. They are capable of delivering a potent sting, which is a defense mechanism against predation.
Photo by Ken-ichi Ueda, Wikimedia Commons

Bombus vosnesenskii
Physical Characteristics
The Yellow-faced Bumblebee is characterized by its distinctive coloration. It has a black body with yellow facial markings, giving it its common name. The yellow markings may vary in intensity, and the abdomen may also have yellow bands. Workers, males, and queens exhibit differences in size and coloration.
Habitat
Yellow-faced Bumblebees are found in a variety of habitats, including meadows, gardens, woodlands, and urban areas. They are important pollinators and play a crucial role in various ecosystems.
Diet
As pollinators, Yellow-faced Bumblebees feed on nectar and collect pollen from flowers. They play a vital role in pollination, contributing to the reproduction of numerous plant species.
Behavior
These bumblebees are social insects, living in colonies with a queen, workers, and males. Colonies are annual, and only mated queens overwinter to establish new colonies in the spring. Workers and males have different roles within the colony.
Reproduction
The reproductive cycle involves a mated queen establishing a colony in the spring. Workers are produced to forage for food and care for the developing brood. Males and new queens are produced later in the season. After mating, new queens hibernate to start colonies in the following spring.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Yellow-faced Bumblebees include birds, spiders, and other insects. Their survival techniques include the ability to deliver a painful sting as a defense mechanism. However, they are generally not aggressive unless their nest is threatened.
Photo by Nathan Wickstrum

Xylocopa californica
Physical Characteristics
The California Carpenter Bee is a sizable bee with a robust and hairy body. Females are generally larger than males. The coloration varies, but they often have a shiny black abdomen and thorax. Some individuals may exhibit iridescent blue or purple hues.
Habitat
California Carpenter Bees are found in a variety of habitats, including gardens, woodlands, and urban areas. They are often associated with nesting in wood, including dead tree branches, fences, and wooden structures.
Diet
As pollinators, these bees primarily feed on nectar from flowers. They play a role in pollination, transferring pollen between flowers as they forage.
Behavior
Unlike social bees, California Carpenter Bees are solitary insects. Females construct nests in wood, creating tunnels for their eggs. They are not aggressive but may exhibit defensive behavior if their nests are disturbed.
Reproduction
The reproductive behavior involves females creating nests by burrowing into wood. They lay eggs in individual chambers within the tunnels, providing provisions of pollen and nectar for the developing larvae. After pupation, adult bees emerge from the nest.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of California Carpenter Bees include birds, spiders, and other insects. Their survival techniques include the ability to deliver a painful sting if threatened. However, they are generally docile and not prone to stinging unless provoked.
Photo by Aaron Hamel, Wikimedia Commons

Anthophora californica
Physical Characteristics
The California Digger Bee is a medium-sized bee with a robust and hairy body. It typically has a black or dark brown coloration, and females may have distinctive pale bands on their abdomen. Like many solitary bees, they exhibit sexual dimorphism, with females being larger than males.
Habitat
California Digger Bees are found in a variety of habitats, including gardens, meadows, and sandy or well-drained soils. They are known for their burrowing behavior, creating nests in the ground.
Diet
As pollinators, these bees primarily feed on nectar from flowers. They play a crucial role in pollination, contributing to the reproductive success of various plant species.
Behavior
Unlike social bees, California Digger Bees are solitary insects. Females construct nests by digging burrows into the ground. Each burrow contains individual cells where the female lays an egg along with a provision of pollen and nectar for the developing larva. After completing a cell, the female seals it before moving on to create another.
Reproduction
The reproductive behavior involves females constructing nests in the ground. The female lays a single egg in each cell along with provisions of pollen and nectar. The larva develops within the sealed cell, eventually pupating and emerging as an adult bee.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of California Digger Bees include birds, spiders, and other insects. Their survival techniques include agility and quick movements, making it challenging for predators to capture them. Additionally, their ground-nesting behavior provides some protection against certain predators.
Photo by Mike Andersen, iNaturalist

Rana draytonii
Physical Characteristics
The California Red-legged Frog is a medium to large-sized frog with a robust body. It is known for its distinctive red or orange-red coloration on the underside of its hind legs, which gives it its common name. The upper parts of the frog's body are typically green or brown with dark markings.
Habitat
These frogs are found in a variety of habitats, including ponds, lakes, marshes, and slow-moving streams. They are associated with both aquatic and terrestrial environments, utilizing different habitats throughout their life cycle.
Diet
California Red-legged Frogs are carnivorous and primarily feed on insects, spiders, small invertebrates, and even smaller frogs. Their diet may vary based on the availability of prey in their habitat.
Behavior
These frogs are known for their semi-aquatic behavior. They spend time both in water and on land. During the breeding season, males produce distinctive mating calls to attract females. They are generally nocturnal and become more active at night.
Reproduction
Breeding typically occurs in the late fall or early winter. Females lay large clusters of eggs in shallow water, and the eggs hatch into tadpoles. Tadpoles undergo metamorphosis, eventually transforming into juvenile frogs. The red coloration on their hind legs becomes more prominent as they mature.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of California Red-legged Frogs include birds, snakes, mammals, and larger amphibians. Their survival techniques include camouflage, nocturnal behavior, and their ability to produce toxic skin secretions as a defense against predators.
Photo by Greg Schechter, Wikimedia Common

Anaxyrus boreas
Size
Adults grow to 2 - 5 inches from snout to vent
Appearance
A large and robust toad with dry, warty skin.
No cranial crests are present.
Parotoid Glands are oval and well-developed.
Pupils are horizontal.
Color and Pattern
The ground color is Greenish, tan, reddish brown, dusky gray, or yellow.
Rusty-colored warts are set on dark blotches.
There is much dark blotching above and below, becoming all dark at times.
The throat is pale on both males and females.
A light stripe is usually present on the middle of the back.
Male/Female Differences
Males are usually less blotched than females and have smoother skin.
Females are larger than males and more stout.
During the breeding season, males have dark nuptial pads on the thumbs and the inner two digits of the hands.
Males are usually less blotched than females and have smoother skin.
Females are larger than males and more stout.
During the breeding season, males have dark nuptial pads on the thumbs and the inner two digits of the hands.
Young
Young have no dorsal stripe immediately after transformation.
The bottoms of their feet is bright orange or yellow.
Larvae (Tadpoles)
Tadpoles are dark brown with eyes inset from the edges of the head.
The tip of the tail is rounded.
They grow to about 2.25 inches (5.6 cm) in length before undergoing metamorphosis.
Life History and Behavior
Activity
Active in daytime and at night. Often diurnal after winter emergence, becoming nocturnal in the summer after breeding.
Movement
Slow moving, often with a walking or crawling motion along with short hops.
Defense
This toad uses poison secretions from parotoid glands and warts to deter predators. Some predators are immune to the poison, and will consume toads. Still other predators such as ravens have learned to avoid the poisons by eating only their viscera through the stomach.
Territoriality
Male Western Toads are not territorial except when breeding. Amplexing males will kick away other males, and males may briefly fight other males at breeding sites.
Longevity
Western Toads in Colorado have been reported living at least 9 years. I have received a report of a toad raised from a tadpole that is 21 years old and still alive (9/14).
Voice
Male California Toads do not have a pronounced vocal sac, but they do make a call during breeding aggregations. Their call has been described as a high-pitched plinking sound, like the peeping of a chick, repeated several times. Since it is not made to attract distant females, the call is not very loud when compared to the call of the sympatric Pacific Treefrog (or similar treefrog species.) The sound of a group of males calling has been compared to the sound of a distant flock of geese.
Calls are produced at night and during the day during the short breeding season. Males make their call primarily when they are in close contact with other males. Rather than being advertisement calls made to attract females, these calls are generally considered encounter or aggressive calls, or release calls, which serve to maintain territory and spacing between males. The calls may also serve other purposes - a lone male toad has been observed calling. It could also be possible that female toads are attracted to the sounds of male encounter calls, and can judge a male's condition by his call, similar to the function of an advertisement call.
Unreceptive females may also produce a release call when grasped on the back by a male. Males and females sometimes make a release call when grabbed across the back by a human hand.
Diet and Feeding
Diet consists of a wide variety of invertebrates.
Prey is located by vision, then the toad lunges with a large sticky tongue to catch the prey and bring it into the mouth to eat.
Tadpoles consume algae and detritus, including the scavenged carrion of fish and other tadpoles (including Caifornia Toad tadpoles - Herpetological Review 38(2), 2007 178-9)
Breeding
Reproduction is aquatic.
Fertilization is external, with the male grasping the back of the female and releasing sperm as the female lays her eggs.
The reproductive cycle is similar to that of most North American Frogs and Toads. Mature adults (4 - 6 years old) come into breeding condition and migrate to ponds or ditches. Males and females pair up in axillary amplexus in the water where the female lays her eggs as the male fertilizes them externally. The adults leave the water and the eggs hatch into tadpoles which feed in the water and eventually grow four legs, lose their tails and emerge onto land where they disperse into the surrounding territory.
Breeding can occur any time from January to early July, depending on the elevation, winter snow levels, or rainfall amounts, taking place shortly after toads emerge from their hibernation sites and migrate to the breeding wetlands. Scent cues are used to find the way to the breeding site. In some areas, breeding occurs after snowmelt when breeding ponds refill with water. Amplexus and egg-laying takes place in still or barely moving waters of seasonal pools, ponds, streams, and small lakes.
Eggs
Eggs are laid in long strings with double rows, averaging 5,200 eggs in a clutch.
Fresh eggs contain some of the toad's toxin to protect them from predation, but this poison decreases over time.
Eggs hatch in 3 to 10 days, often longer in the colder waters of higher elevations.
Tadpoles and Young
Tadpoles are dark brown and grow to about 2.25 inches (5.6 cm) in length before undergoing metamorphosis.
Large schools of tadpoles often feed together in shallow water.
Tadpoles enter metamorphosis in 30 - 45 days, usually in summer or early fall, depending on water temperature - colder water delays metamorphosis.
In years of extreme winter weather, especially at higher elevations, metamorphosis might be only a few weeks before snow begins to accumulate again.
When in the process of metamorphosis, many tadpoles are often seen in aggregations at the edge of a pond in various stages of metamorphosis.
After most tadpoles undergo metamorphosis, large numbers of newly-transformed toads are often seen hopping around the edges of the water.
They may stay and spend the winter at the border of their natal wetland, or they may disperse to nearby sites away from the pond.
Habitat
Inhabits a variety of habitats, including marshes, springs, creeks, small lakes, meadows, woodlands, forests, and desert riparian areas.
In the spring and early summer, toads are often found at the edge of water, sometimes basking on rocks and logs. At other times of the year they are also found farther from the water where they spend much of their time in moist terrestrial habitats.
Toads use rodent holes, rock chambers, and root system hollow as refuges from heat and cold.
Comparison with Boreal Toads
A. b. halophilus has fewer dark blotches on the belly than A. b. boreas.
The head of A. b. halophilus is also wider with larger eyes with less distance between the upper eyelids, and
the feet are also smaller than A. b. boreas. (Stebbins)
Comparison with Sympatric Arroyo Toads
Adults
Arroyo toads typically have a light stripe or V across the head and eyelids which is lacking on California Toads.
Mature California Toads typically have a pale dorsolateral stripe (a pale light stripe down the middle of the back) which is lacking on Arroyo Toads.
Juveniles
Juvenile Arroyo Toads show the pale V between the eyes, pale spots on the sacral humps, yellow tubercles, and are unmarked ventrally.
Juvenile Calfornia Toads have no pale V or pale sacral hump spots, rust-colored turbercles, a pale dorsolateral stripe, and are marked with dark spots ventrally.
Juvenile Arroyo toads are typically found fully exposed in direct sunlight on the sandy banks of the natal creek.
Juvenile California toads are typically found dug into wet sand at the edge of the creek, or in shade under vegetation.
Tadpoles
Mature California Toad tadpoles appear dark with light mottling while mature Arroyo Toad tadpoles appear light with dark mottling.
Arroyo Toad tadpoles tend to remain motionless more than California Toad tadpoles. About a quarter of a small group of Calfornia Toad tadpoles will be active at any moment, while only a few individuals in a small group of Arroyo Toad tadpoles will be moving at any moment.
Metamorphosing Arroyo Toad tadpoles show the pale V between the eyes, pale spots on the sacral humps, and yellowtubercles.
Metamorphosing California Toads are darker with no pale V or sacral hump coloring, and rust-colored tubercles.
References
CaliforniaHerps.com
Photo by Mberg, Wikimedia Commons

Pseudacris hypochondriaca
Characteristics
Adults are .75 - 2 inches long from snout to vent. It is a small frog with a large head, large eyes, a slim waist, round pads on the toe tips, limited webbing between the toes, and a wide dark stripe through the middle of each eye that extends from the nostrils to the shoulders (good way to verify the Baja California treefrog). Legs are long and slender. Skin is smooth and moist. Often there is a Y-shaped marking between the eyes. The difference between a male/female is the male's throat is darkened and wrinkled.
Dorsal body coloring is variable: green, tan, brown, gray, reddish, cream, but it is most often green or brown. The body color and the dark eye stripe do not change, but the body color can quickly change from dark to light, and dark markings on the back and legs can vary in intensity or disappear in response to environmental conditions. The underside is creamy with yellow underneath the back legs.
Tadpoles are up to 1 7/8” long (4.7 cm) blackish to dark brown and light below with a bronze sheen. The intestines are not visible. Viewed from above, the eyes extend to the outline of the head.
Comparison with California Treefrogs – Pseudacris cadaverina
Adults
Baja California Treefrogs have a dark stripe through each eye.
California Treefrogs do not have a dark stripe through each eye.
Baja California Treefrogs are found in a variety of colors including greens, greys and browns.
California Treefrogs are mostly pale with some dark markings.
Tadpoles
Baja California Treefrog tadpoles have eyes that when seen from above are on the edge of the outline of the head.
California Treefrog tadpoles have eyes that, when viewed from above, are set barely within the outline of the head.
California Treefrog tadpoles have a flatter body than those of Baja California Treefrogs, and a more acute snout.
Habitat
This species utilizes a wide variety of habitats, often far from water outside of the breeding season, including forest, woodland, chaparral, grassland, pastures, desert streams and oases, and urban areas. Although, in the breeding season, shallow bodies of water act as habitat due to its component in the laying of eggs. During active periods, adults are most commonly found in close proximity to and along stream channels. During the daytime, individuals seek refuge in cavities or small depressions on the surfaces of the boulders lining streams, often fully exposed to direct sunlight. These perches are usually within a few jumps from the nearest pool.
Range
Even though the Baja California treefrog exist on Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz and Catalina islands, the range of this frog is not clear, due to the small number of specimens sampled for the study that described the species. It is apparently found throughout southern California, south of Santa Barbara County and Bakersfield and on the offshore islands, excluding most of the southeast deserts. It ranges farther east into Nevada, and south into Baja California.
Diet
The Baja California treefrog eats a wide variety of invertebrates, primarily on the ground at night, including a high percentage of flying insects. During the breeding season, they also feed during the day. Typical of most frogs, prey is located by vision, and then the frog lunges with a large sticky tongue to catch the prey and bring it into the mouth to eat. Tadpoles are suspension feeders, eating a variety of prey including algaes, bacteria, protozoa and organic and inorganic debris.
Breeding
Reproduction is aquatic. Fertilization is external. The reproductive cycle is similar to that of most North American Frogs and Toads. Mature adults come into breeding condition and move to ponds or ditches where the males call to advertise their fitness to competing males and to females. Males and females pair up in amplexus in the water where the female lays her eggs as the male fertilizes them externally. The adults leave the water and the eggs hatch into tadpoles which feed in the water and eventually grow four legs, lose their tails and emerge onto land where they disperse into the surrounding territory.
Breeding and egg-laying occurs between November until July, depending on the location. Adults probably become reproductively mature in their first year. Males move to breeding waters and begin to make their advertisement call. These calls attract more males, then eventually females. Males call while in or next to water at night, and during daylight during the peak of breeding when calling can occur all day and night. Some males and females have been observed staying only a few weeks at a breeding site. Some males have been observed moving to another site. And others have been observed staying at a site the entire breeding season. Males are territorial during the breeding season, establishing territories that they will defend with an encounter call or by physically butting and wrestling with another male. Satellite male breeding behavior has been observed - a silent male will intercept and mate with females that are attracted to the calling of other territorial males.
Breeding locations include slow streams, permanent and seasonal ponds, reservoirs, ditches, lakes, marshes, shallow vegetated wetlands, wet meadows, forested swamps, potholes, artificial ponds, and roadside ditches. The Baja California Treefrog tends to avoid large lakes or streams with very cold water.
Females lay on average between 400 - 750 eggs in small, loose, irregular clusters of 10 - 80 eggs each. Egg clusters are attached to sticks, stems, or grass in quiet shallow water. The eggs hatch in two to three weeks. Eggs appear to be resistant to the negative effects of solar UV-B radiation and even to increased water acidification. Eggs can also survive freezing temperatures for a short time.
Tadpoles aggregate for thermoregulation and to avoid predation. Tadpoles metamorphose in about 2 to 2.5 months, generally from June to late August. In summer, there are often large congregations of new metamorphs along the banks of breeding pools. Metamorphosed juveniles leave their birth pond soon after transformation, dispersing into adult habitats.
Voice
Advertisement calls are heard during the evening and at night, and during the daytime at the peak of the breeding season. Males produce two different kinds of very loud advertisement calls: a two-parted, or diphasic call, typically described as rib-it, or krek-ek, with the last syllable rising in inflection, and a one-part, or monophasic call, also called the enhanced mate attraction call. They also produce a slow trilled encounter call, a release call, and a land call, which is a prolonged one-note sound that is produced much of the year, especially during the beginning of the fall rains. The most commonly heard frog in its range.
(The call of the Baja California Treefrog is known throughout the world through its wide use as a nighttime background sound in old Hollywood movies, even those which are set in areas well outside the range of this frog. The call of the Baja California Treefrog is identical to that of the Sierran Treefrog and the Northern Pacific Treefrog, and it is possible that the calls any of these species were used as movie sound effects.)
Quick and Cool Facts
• You can find the extended family of treefrogs in your back yard, along the beach, in the Mojave Desert, in woodlands, in grasslands or pastures, and even at 11,000 feet on Mount Whitney.
• Baja California treefrogs change color based on the air temperature and humidity.
• Baja California treefrog's color change is to reduce the likelihood that it will become a meal for a bullfrog, raccoon, heron, snake, or other predator.
• Baja California treefrogs have special "sticky pads" on their feet that help them climb.
• Treefrog are the only frog in the West that makes the classic "ribbet" vocalization - the sound that Hollywood film producers have made familiar around the world.
• Frog music is heard most often in the spring, but treefrogs vocalize all year unless the temperature dips below freezing.
• Interestingly, the treefrogs coordinate their vocalizations, creating a frog chorus. One male acts as the "chorus master" and starts calling. Other males in the vicinity gradually join in as the chorus swells.
Reference
https://www.nps.gov/chis/learn/nature/baja-california-treefrog.htm
www.californiaherps.com/frogs/pages/p.hypochondriaca.html
Photo by Nathan Wickstrum

Eptesicus fuscus
Physical Characteristics
The Big Brown Bat is a medium-sized bat with a robust body. It has fur that is typically brown, ranging from light to dark shades. Their wingspan can reach up to 13 inches, and they have relatively large ears compared to other bat species.
Habitat
Big Brown Bats are highly adaptable and can be found in a variety of habitats, including urban areas, forests, deserts, and agricultural landscapes. They roost in a range of locations, such as buildings, caves, trees, and rock crevices.
Diet
These bats are insectivores, feeding primarily on flying insects such as moths, beetles, and mosquitoes. They use echolocation to locate and capture their prey during flight.
Behavior
Big Brown Bats are nocturnal, being most active during the night. They are skilled fliers and use echolocation to navigate and locate prey. During the day, they roost in sheltered locations, often in buildings.
Reproduction
Breeding typically occurs in the fall, with females storing sperm until spring ovulation. Female Big Brown Bats give birth to one or two pups in early summer. Maternity colonies are formed in warm, secluded locations.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Big Brown Bats include owls, snakes, and larger predatory birds. Their survival techniques include agile flight, echolocation for navigation and hunting, and roosting in locations that provide some protection against predators.
Photo by Ryan Hodnett, Wikimedia Commons

Myotis evotis
Physical Characteristics
The Long-eared Myotis is a medium-sized bat with distinctive long ears, which can extend beyond the nose when laid forward. The fur is generally brown, and the face is often paler. It has a wingspan of around 9-11 inches.
Habitat
Long-eared Myotis are found in a variety of habitats, including forests, grasslands, and riparian areas. They roost in diverse locations such as trees, caves, rock crevices, and buildings.
Diet
These bats are insectivores, feeding on a variety of flying insects, including moths, beetles, and flies. They use echolocation to locate and capture prey during flight.
Behavior
Long-eared Myotis are nocturnal, being most active during the night. They are agile fliers and use echolocation for navigation and hunting. During the day, they roost in sheltered locations, often in groups.
Reproduction
Breeding typically occurs in the fall, with females storing sperm until spring ovulation. Females give birth to one or two pups in early summer. Maternity colonies are formed in various roosting sites.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Long-eared Myotis include owls, larger bats, and some terrestrial predators. Their survival techniques include agile flight, echolocation for hunting and navigation, and selecting roosting sites that provide some protection against predators.
Photo by LassenNPS, Wikimedia Commons

Antrozous pallidus
Physical Characteristics
The Pallid Bat is a medium-sized bat with distinct physical features. It has pale or light brown fur, large ears, and a relatively short tail. The face is characterized by a broad nose and large eyes. The wings are relatively long and narrow compared to the body.
Habitat
Pallid Bats are found in various habitats, including deserts, grasslands, and open woodlands. They roost in a variety of locations, such as caves, rock crevices, and buildings.
Diet
These bats are primarily insectivores, feeding on a diverse range of prey, including moths, beetles, and other nocturnal insects. Pallid Bats are known for capturing ground-dwelling prey, such as scorpions, by plucking them from the ground.
Behavior
Pallid Bats are nocturnal and are active during the night. They use echolocation for hunting and navigation. In addition to flying and capturing insects in flight, they are known for ground-gleaning, where they land to catch prey on the ground.
Reproduction
Breeding typically occurs in the fall, with females giving birth to one or two pups in early summer. Maternity colonies may form in a variety of roosting sites.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Pallid Bats include owls, larger bats, and some terrestrial predators. Their survival techniques include agile flight, echolocation for hunting and navigation, and selecting roosting sites that provide some protection against predators.
Photo by Juan Cruzado Cortés, Wikicommons

Adelpha californica
Physical Characteristics
The California Sister butterfly has distinctive black wings with orange bands and white spots. The wingspan is typically around 2.5 to 3 inches. The underside of the wings is more cryptic, providing camouflage when the butterfly rests.
Habitat
California Sisters are found in a variety of habitats, including forests, woodlands, and riparian areas. They are often observed near streams and rivers.
Diet
As adults, California Sisters primarily feed on flower nectar. The caterpillars, in their larval stage, feed on the leaves of host plants, which include various species of willow (Salix).
Behavior
California Sisters are known for their strong and erratic flight. They are agile fliers and can cover considerable distances. They are often seen flying near the ground or perching on vegetation.
Reproduction
The female California Sister lays eggs on the leaves of host plants. The caterpillars hatch from the eggs and undergo metamorphosis, forming chrysalids before emerging as adult butterflies.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of California Sisters include birds, spiders, and insects. Their survival techniques include camouflage, with the underside of their wings resembling dead leaves. Their flight behavior, characterized by rapid and erratic movements, helps evade predators.
Photo by Franco Folini, Wikimedia Commons

Danaus plexippus
Description
Monarch butterflies are bright orange with black and white markings. The body of the monarch is black. The head has a set of antennae.
The wings are mostly orange with black veins running throughout. The outer edge of the wings has a thick black border. Within the black border are white spots. The white spots can range in size and they decorate the wings. At the upper corner of the top set of wings are orange spots.
The underside of the monarch butterflies' wings can be seen when the butterfly is at rest or when it is feeding on a flower. Instead of bright orange, the underside is more drab and orange-brown.
Males and females can be told apart by looking at the top of their hind wings. Males have a black spot at the center of each hind wing, while the females do not. The spot is a scent gland that helps the males attract female mates. Another less accurate way to tell males from females is that the females usually have much thicker veins than the males.
Monarch butterfly caterpillars are also easy to identify. The caterpillars have many yellow, black and white bands. There are antenna-like tentacles at each end of the caterpillar's body.
Size
Monarch butterflies have a wingspan of 3 ½ - 4”
Habitat
Monarch butterflies utilize different habitat in the warm months versus the cold months. In the spring, summer and early fall, they can found wherever there are milkweeds. Monarchs lay their eggs on the milkweeds and they're always searching for them in fields, meadows and parks. Many people plant milkweeds in their gardens.
Monarchs cannot survive freezing temperatures, so they over-winter in the cool, high mountains of central Mexico and woodlands in central and southern California.
Range
Monarch butterflies can be found throughout the United States, including Hawaii.
The majority of monarch butterflies live east of the Rocky Mountains. In the early spring, they are first seen in Texas and the south. As spring turns to summer, they're seen in more and more states and Canada.
A much smaller population of monarch butterflies lives west of the Rocky Mountains. Instead of making the long journey between Mexico and Canada, the western monarchs only travel as far south as San Diego. Some monarchs live in California year-round and others spend summers as far north as British Columbia, Canada.
Hawaii also has monarch butterflies. Monarchs that were released or lost their way from California have found success year-round on the Hawaiian Islands.
Communication
Monarch butterflies communicate with scents and colors.
• The males attract females to mate by releasing chemicals from scent glands on the hind wings.
• All monarchs signal that they are poisonous by having bright orange wings. The bright colors serve as a warning that predators should attack at their own risk.
Diet
Monarchs, like all butterflies, change their diet as they develop. During the caterpillar stage, they live exclusively on milkweed plants. Milkweeds are wildflowers in the genus Asclepias. Milkweeds contain glycoside toxins that are harmless to the monarch but poisonous to its predators. Monarch caterpillars feed on all the different parts of milkweed plants and store up the toxins in their body. The toxins remain in their system even after metamorphosis, thereby making adult monarchs poisonous as well.
Adult monarchs feed on nectar from a wide range of flowers, including milkweeds.
The Life Cycle(s) of a Monarch Butterfly
Monarch butterflies go through 4 stages during one life cycle, and through 4 generations in one year. It’s a little confusing but keep reading and you will understand. The 4 stages of the butterfly life cycle are the egg, the larvae (caterpillar), the pupa (chrysalis), and the adult butterfly. The 4 generations are actually 4 different butterflies going through these 4 stages during one year until it is time to start over again with stage one and generation one.
In February and March, the final generation of hibernating monarch butterflies comes out of hibernation to find a mate. They then migrate north and east in order to find a place to lay their eggs. This starts stage one and generation one of the new year for the monarch butterfly.
In March and April the eggs are laid on milkweed plants. They hatch into baby caterpillars, also called the larvae. It takes about 4 days for the eggs to hatch. Then the baby caterpillar doesn’t do much more than eat the milkweed in order to grow. After about 2 weeks, the caterpillar will be fully-grown and find a place to attach itself so that it can start the process of metamorphosis. It will attach itself to a stem or a leaf using silk and transform into a chrysalis. Although, from the outside, the 2 weeks of the chrysalis phase seems to be a time when nothing is happening, it is really a time of rapid change. Within the chrysalis the old body parts of the caterpillar are undergoing a remarkable transformation, called metamorphosis, to become the beautiful parts that make up the butterfly that will emerge. The monarch butterfly will emerge from the pupa and fly away, feeding on flowers and just enjoying the short life it has left, which is only about 2 to 6 weeks. This first generation monarch butterfly will then die after laying eggs for generation number 2.
The second generation of monarch butterflies is born in May and June, and then the third generation will be born in July and August. These monarch butterflies will go through exactly the same 4 stage life cycle as the first generation did, dying 2 to 6 weeks after it becomes a beautiful monarch butterfly.
The fourth generation of monarch butterflies is a little bit different than the first 3 generations. The fourth generation is born in September and October and goes through exactly the same process as the first, second and third generations except for one part. The fourth generation of monarch butterflies does not die after 2 to 6 weeks. Instead, this generation of monarch butterflies migrates to warmer climates like Mexico and California and will live for 6 to 8 months until it is time to start the whole process over again.
Life History and Reproduction
Over-wintering monarch butterflies in Mexico begin to make the journey north to the United States in early spring. Soon after they leave Mexico, pairs of monarchs mate. As they reach the southern United States, females will look for available milkweed plants to lay eggs.
The eggs hatch after approximately 4 days. The caterpillars are small and they grow many times their initial size over a 2 week period. The caterpillars feed on the available milkweed plants. When they get big enough, each caterpillar forms a chrysalis and goes through metamorphosis.
The chrysalis protects the monarch as it is going through the major developmental change of turning from a caterpillar to a butterfly. The chrysalis is green with yellow spots. After another 2-week period, an adult butterfly will emerge from the chrysalis.
The adult monarchs continue the journey north that was left unfinished by their parents. Each year, about 4 generations will be born to continue migrating north. It is only the last generation, born in late summer that will live 8 months and migrate back to Mexico to start the cycle over again.
References
www.learnaboutnature.com - The Monarch Butterfly
www.nwf.org/Wildlife-Library/Invertebrates/Monarch-Butterfly.aspx
Photo by Nathan Wickstrum

Papilio eurymedon
Physical Characteristics
The Pale Swallowtail has a distinctive appearance with pale yellow to cream-colored wings. It has black markings, including a broad black band on the outer edge of the forewings. The wingspan can range from 3 to 4 inches.
Habitat
This butterfly species is found in a variety of habitats, including woodlands, meadows, gardens, and other open areas. It is often associated with habitats where its larval host plants, particularly members of the genus Sambucus (elderberries), are present.
Diet
Adult Pale Swallowtails feed on flower nectar, and their caterpillars feed on the leaves of host plants, primarily elderberry plants. Caterpillars resemble bird droppings in their early instars, providing a form of camouflage.
Behavior
Pale Swallowtails are known for their graceful flight. They are strong fliers and can cover considerable distances. They are often observed visiting flowers for nectar and are attracted to various flowering plants.
Reproduction
Female Pale Swallowtails lay eggs on the leaves of host plants. The caterpillars hatch from the eggs and undergo metamorphosis, forming chrysalids before emerging as adult butterflies.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Pale Swallowtails include birds, spiders, and insects. Their survival techniques include camouflage during the larval stage, with caterpillars resembling bird droppings. The butterfly's flight behavior helps them evade predators.
Photo by Nathan Wickstrum

Hyles lineata
Physical Characteristics
The White-lined Sphinx Moth has a distinct appearance with a wingspan that can range from 2.5 to 3.5 inches. The forewings are brown with prominent white lines, while the hindwings are orange or pink with black borders. The body is robust, and the moth has a streamlined, hummingbird-like appearance.
Habitat
This moth is highly adaptable and can be found in various habitats, including gardens, meadows, deserts, and urban areas. It is known for its strong flying abilities and long-distance migrations.
Diet
Adult White-lined Sphinx Moths feed on flower nectar, often hovering in front of flowers like hummingbirds. The caterpillars, in their larval stage, feed on various plants, including members of the nightshade family (Solanaceae).
Behavior
White-lined Sphinx Moths are crepuscular and nocturnal, being active during the late afternoon, evening, and night. They are strong fliers and can cover significant distances during their migrations.
Reproduction
Females lay eggs on the leaves of host plants, and the caterpillars that hatch from these eggs undergo several instars before pupating. The pupa eventually transforms into an adult moth.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of White-lined Sphinx Moths include birds, bats, and other nocturnal predators. Their survival techniques include their ability to fly swiftly and hover, mimicking the flight pattern of hummingbirds. This mimicry may serve as a form of protection against potential predators.
Photo by Wildreturn, Wikimedia Commons

Euphydryas chalcedona
Physical Characteristics
The Variable Checkerspot exhibits considerable variation in color and pattern. Generally, it has a wingspan ranging from 1.5 to 2.5 inches. The upper side of the wings can be orange, brown, or black with distinctive white and orange markings.
Habitat
Variable Checkerspots inhabit a variety of habitats, including meadows, grasslands, open woodlands, and disturbed areas. They are often associated with areas where their host plants, including plants in the genus Castilleja, are present.
Diet
Adult Variable Checkerspots feed on flower nectar from a range of flowering plants. The caterpillars, in their larval stage, feed on the leaves of specific host plants, such as Indian paintbrush (Castilleja spp.).
Behavior
These butterflies are active during the day and are often observed fluttering around flowers. They engage in courtship behaviors during the breeding season, and males actively patrol for females.
Reproduction
Female Variable Checkerspots lay eggs on the leaves of host plants. The caterpillars that hatch from these eggs undergo metamorphosis to become adult butterflies. The species may have multiple generations per year.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Variable Checkerspots include birds, spiders, and insects. Their survival techniques include camouflage, as their coloration can vary, providing some degree of protection against predators. Additionally, their flight patterns may help them evade predators.
Photo by Nathan Wickstrum

Vanessa cardui
Physical Characteristics
The Painted Lady butterfly is recognized for its colorful and distinctive appearance. It has orange-brown wings with black and white markings. The upper side of the wings has prominent eyespots, and the wingspan can range from 2 to 2.9 inches.
Habitat
Painted Lady butterflies are highly adaptable and can be found in a variety of habitats, including gardens, meadows, open fields, and even urban areas. They are known for their migratory behavior.
Diet
Adult Painted Lady butterflies feed on flower nectar from a wide range of flowering plants. Caterpillars, in their larval stage, feed on the leaves of various host plants, including thistles and mallows.
Behavior
Painted Lady butterflies are strong fliers and are known for their long-distance migrations. They engage in seasonal movements, and their populations can vary greatly from year to year.
Reproduction
Females lay eggs on the leaves of host plants, and the caterpillars that hatch from these eggs undergo metamorphosis to become adult butterflies. The species is capable of multiple generations per year.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Painted Lady butterflies include birds, spiders, and insects. Their survival techniques include their ability to fly long distances during migration, and their colorful wing patterns may serve as a form of warning to potential predators.
Photo by Zeynel Cebeci, Wikimedia Commons

Paruroctonus silvestrii
Physical Characteristics
The California Common Scorpion, Paruroctonus silvestrii, has a robust and flattened body, with pincers (pedipalps) and a long, slender metasoma (tail). The coloration can vary but often includes shades of brown or reddish-brown. Like other scorpions, it has a venomous sting.
Habitat
This species is adapted to arid and semi-arid environments. California Common Scorpions are commonly found in rocky areas, deserts, and other dry habitats. They may seek shelter under rocks or in burrows during the day.
Diet
Scorpions are carnivorous predators. California Common Scorpions feed on a variety of small invertebrates, including insects, spiders, and other arthropods. They use their pincers to capture prey and inject venom with their stingers.
Behavior
California Common Scorpions are nocturnal, becoming active during the night. They are adapted to the challenges of a desert environment, including temperature fluctuations. They use their sensory organs to locate prey.
Reproduction
Scorpions reproduce sexually, and females give birth to live young. The mother carries the young on her back until they undergo their first molt. Scorpions have a relatively slow reproductive rate compared to some other arachnids.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of scorpions can include various arachnids, reptiles, and some mammals. California Common Scorpions use their venomous sting as a defense mechanism against predators. Their ability to seek shelter and their nocturnal behavior contribute to their survival.
Photo by Chloe and Trevor Van Loon, Wikimedia Commons

Rabidosa rabida
Physical Characteristics
Rabid Wolf Spiders are medium to large-sized spiders with robust bodies. They are typically brown or grayish-brown in color. Like other wolf spiders, they have excellent eyesight, with large, forward-facing eyes. The body is covered with fine hairs.
Habitat
These spiders are commonly found in a variety of habitats, including grasslands, forests, and urban areas. They are ground-dwelling spiders that do not construct webs to catch prey. Instead, they actively hunt for food.
Diet
Rabid Wolf Spiders are carnivorous and feed on a variety of small arthropods. They are agile hunters, relying on their keen eyesight and speed to catch prey.
Behavior
As wolf spiders, Rabidosa rabida does not build webs to catch prey. Instead, they actively roam and hunt on the ground. They are known for their speed and agility, both in hunting and escaping from potential threats.
Reproduction
Female wolf spiders carry their egg sacs attached to their spinnerets. After the eggs hatch, the spiderlings climb onto the mother's abdomen and ride there for some time before dispersing.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of wolf spiders include birds, other spiders, and some small mammals. Their survival techniques include camouflage, burrowing into soil for protection, and rapid movement to escape from potential threats.
Photo by Wildreturn, Wikimedia Commons

Argiope trifasciata
Physical Characteristics
The Banded Garden Spider typically has a large and robust abdomen with distinctive yellow and black banding. The female is larger than the male, and both genders exhibit a striking pattern on their webs.
Habitat
These spiders are commonly found in gardens, meadows, and other open areas where they can build large orb-shaped webs to capture flying insects.
Diet
Banded Garden Spiders are orb-weavers that primarily feed on flying insects caught in their webs. The webs are characterized by a central zigzag pattern, known as a stabilimentum.
Behavior
These spiders are known for their beautiful and intricate webs, and the stabilimentum is believed to serve various functions, including prey attraction or warning to birds.
Reproduction
Females lay egg sacs containing hundreds of eggs. The young spiders hatch in the spring, disperse, and construct their own webs.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Banded Garden Spiders include birds and other spider-eating animals. Their survival techniques include the use of silk for building webs and retreats, as well as venom to immobilize prey.
Photo by Ferran Pestaña, Wikimedia Commons

Aphonopelma steindachneri
Aphonopelma steindachneri is a medium-sized tarantula with a leg span that can reach several inches. The coloration is typically dark, ranging from brown to black. Like other tarantulas, it has a robust body and prominent, hairy legs.
Habitat
These tarantulas are often found in arid and semi-arid habitats, including deserts and scrublands. They may create burrows in the soil as shelters.
Diet
Aphonopelma steindachneri is a carnivorous predator. It preys on a variety of insects and other small invertebrates. Tarantulas use their fangs to inject venom into their prey.
Behavior
Tarantulas are nocturnal and generally solitary. They are ground-dwelling spiders that may dig burrows for shelter and protection. When threatened, they may use their urticating hairs or adopt a defensive posture.
Reproduction
Female tarantulas are known for their longevity compared to males. Mating involves a courtship ritual, and females may lay eggs in silk egg sacs. The spiderlings hatch from these eggs, and the mother may provide some protection until they disperse.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of tarantulas include birds, reptiles, and mammals. Their survival techniques include defensive behaviors, such as rearing up, flicking urticating hairs, and using their fangs if threatened.
Photo by Nathan Wickstrum

Latrodectus hesperus
Physical Characteristics
The Western Black Widow is a medium-sized spider with a shiny black body and a distinctive red or orange hourglass-shaped mark on the underside of the abdomen. Females are larger than males, and their bodies may be about 1.5 inches in length.
Habitat
These spiders are commonly found in a variety of habitats, including outdoor structures, woodpiles, gardens, and other sheltered places. They may create irregular webs in corners or hidden locations.
Diet
Western Black Widows are carnivorous and feed on a variety of small insects that become ensnared in their webs. They use venom to subdue and liquefy their prey before feeding.
Behavior
Black Widows are known for their secretive behavior. They are primarily nocturnal and tend to hide during the day. They construct irregular, tangled webs with a retreat where they rest.
Reproduction
Female Western Black Widows can produce multiple egg sacs, each containing hundreds of eggs. After hatching, the spiderlings disperse, and the process repeats. Male spiders often engage in elaborate courtship rituals to approach females.
Venom and Medical Importance
The venom of the Western Black Widow is neurotoxic and can be harmful to humans. However, fatalities are rare, and bites are generally not life-threatening. Symptoms may include pain, muscle cramps, and other systemic effects.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Black Widows include birds and other spider-eating animals. Their survival techniques include their cryptic coloration, hiding in retreats, and the use of venom for prey capture and defense.
Photo by Marshal Hedin

Neoscona crucifera
Physical Characteristics
The Spotted Orbweaver, Neoscona domiciliorum, has a broad, flattened abdomen with a distinctive pattern of spots on the dorsal side. The spots may vary in size and arrangement, and the coloration can range from brown to yellowish-brown.
Habitat
Spotted Orbweavers are commonly found in various habitats, including gardens, fields, and wooded areas. They construct orb-shaped webs, usually positioned horizontally between vegetation.
Diet
These spiders are orb-weavers that primarily feed on flying insects. Their webs are designed to capture and immobilize prey using sticky silk.
Behavior
Spotted Orbweavers are nocturnal hunters, constructing and repairing their webs during the night. They remain hidden during the day, often positioned in retreats near the web.
Reproduction
Female Spotted Orbweavers lay egg sacs containing hundreds of eggs. The spiderlings hatch from the eggs and disperse to build their own webs as they mature.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Spotted Orbweavers include birds, wasps, and other spider-eating animals. Their survival techniques include the use of silk for building webs and retreats, as well as the ability to remain hidden during the day.
Photo by Judy Gallagher, Wikimedia Commons

Nematomorpha
Physical Characteristics
Nematomorphs are long, thread-like worms that are often hair-thin and can reach lengths of several inches to even a foot. They are unsegmented and have a simple cylindrical body. Adult horsehair worms are free-living, while the larvae are parasitoids.
Habitat
Horsehair worms are typically found in freshwater environments, such as ponds, streams, and puddles. The adults are free-living in water, while the larvae parasitize arthropods like insects and crustaceans.
Life Cycle
The life cycle of horsehair worms involves a parasitic larval stage. The larvae develop inside the bodies of insects or crustaceans. Once mature, they emerge as free-living adults in the water. They do not parasitize vertebrates, including humans.
Behavior
Adult horsehair worms are free-swimming and exhibit characteristic wriggling movements. The larvae, on the other hand, manipulate the behavior of their arthropod hosts, often causing them to jump into water, facilitating the release of the adult worms.
Reproduction
Horsehair worms reproduce sexually, and the fertilized eggs develop into larvae. The larvae, known as cysts, are ingested by arthropod hosts during feeding. Inside the host, the larvae develop and manipulate the host's behavior to ensure their release in water.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Adult horsehair worms have limited defenses against predators. Their survival strategy involves producing a large number of eggs, ensuring that some will successfully develop into larvae, find a suitable host, and complete the life cycle.
Ecological Importance
Horsehair worms play a role in aquatic ecosystems by contributing to nutrient cycling. As parasitoids, they influence the behavior and population dynamics of arthropod hosts.
Photo by Alastair Rae, Wikimedia Commons

Actinemys marmorata
Physical Characteristics
Western Pond Turtles have a relatively flattened shell (carapace) with dark markings, giving them a marbled or mottled appearance. The carapace can range from olive to brown. They have webbed feet and a relatively small size compared to some other turtle species.
Habitat
Western Pond Turtles are typically found in freshwater habitats such as ponds, lakes, slow-moving rivers, and marshes. They may bask on rocks or logs near the water's edge to regulate their body temperature.
Diet
These turtles are omnivores and have a varied diet. They feed on aquatic vegetation, insects, small fish, tadpoles, and other invertebrates. Their diet may vary depending on the availability of food in their habitat.
Behavior
Western Pond Turtles are generally diurnal and spend time basking in the sun to warm up. They are good swimmers and may move between aquatic and terrestrial habitats. During the winter, they may hibernate in mud or underwater.
Reproduction
Female Western Pond Turtles lay eggs in nests dug in sandy or loose soil. The number of eggs laid can vary, and the incubation period lasts several weeks. Hatchlings emerge in late summer or early fall.
Conservation Status
Western Pond Turtles face threats such as habitat loss, pollution, and predation. Conservation efforts are in place to protect their habitats, monitor populations, and mitigate potential threats.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Western Pond Turtles include birds, mammals, and larger aquatic predators. Their survival techniques include basking to regulate body temperature, seeking refuge in water, and using their shell for protection.
Photo by Nathan Wickstrum

Oncorhynchus mykiss
Physical Characteristics
Rainbow Trout have a streamlined body with silvery sides and a distinctive pink to red lateral stripe running along their bodies. The name "rainbow" is derived from the iridescent hues that may appear on their skin, especially during the spawning season. They have small black spots on their back, fins, and tail.
Habitat
Rainbow Trout inhabit a variety of freshwater environments, including rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds. They are adaptable and can live in both cold and warm water, but they are typically associated with cool, clear streams.
Diet
Rainbow Trout are opportunistic feeders and have a diverse diet that includes aquatic and terrestrial insects, crustaceans, small fish, and even small mammals. Their feeding habits can vary depending on their life stage and the availability of prey.
Behavior
Rainbow Trout are known for their migratory behavior. Some populations migrate between freshwater and saltwater habitats, while others may spend their entire lives in freshwater. They are also popular among anglers for their strong fighting ability.
Reproduction
Rainbow Trout typically spawn in gravel nests (redds) in rivers and streams. Female trout excavate a depression in the gravel where they deposit their eggs, and males then fertilize the eggs. After hatching, juvenile trout (fry) emerge and start their life cycle.
Predators and Survival Techniques
Predators of Rainbow Trout include birds, mammals, and larger fish. Their survival techniques include swift swimming, camouflage, and seeking refuge in underwater structures to avoid predation.
Photo by Engbretson Eric, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Wikimedia Commons